| British Expedition to Abyssinia | | 19th | 4 December 1867 | 13 May 1868 | The British Expedition to Abyssinia was a 19th century campaign undertaken by the armed forces of the British Empire against the Ethiopian Empire, which was also known at the time as Abyssinia. Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia had imprisoned British missionaries and government representatives. Under Lieutenant-General Robert Napier, the British military landed on the coast of the Red Sea and travelled hundreds of miles across mountainous topography to Tewodros’s fortress at Magdala. In battle, the British defeated the Abyssinians and captured the Ethiopian capital. | Africa |
| Tripartite Accord | New York Accords | 20th | 22 December 1988 | | The Tripartite Accord of 1988, also known as the New York Accords, was a peace treaty signed by the foreign ministers of Angola, Cuba and South Africa at the UN headquarters in New York. The agreement stipulated the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. It also granted independence to Namibia from South Africa on terms including multi-party democracy, a capitalist free-market economy, and a transition period. The UN’s supervision of all actions ended the direct involvement of all foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War. | Africa |
| Herero and Namaqua Genocide | | 20th | 1904 | 1908 | The Herero and Namaqua genocide was a campaign of ethnic extermination and punishment that took place at the turn of the 20th century. The campaign was waged two decades after the German Empire formally colonised German South West Africa (present-day Namibia) in 1884. Between 1904 and 1907, an estimated 10,000 Nama and 65,000 Herero died from starvation and dehydration in the Namib desert or later from treatment in concentration camps. | Africa |
| Kongo-Wara Rebellion | Baya War | 20th | 1928 | 1931 | The Kongo-Wara Rebellion, also known as the Baya War, was the largest-scale insurrection against French colonial rule during the interwar period. In the former colonies of French Equatorial Africa and French Cameroon, the French colonial administration conscripted native populations into labour on plantations, in the military, and on the Congo-Ocean railway. In response, armed conflict broke out in 1928, and the following three years saw sustained conflict, mostly in rural areas which are now part of the Central African Republic. | Africa |
| Treaty of Addis Ababa | | 19th | 23 October 1896 | | The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed between Ethopia and Italy in October 1896, formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War. Earlier the same year, the Ethiopian army of Emperor Menilek II defeated Italian forces in the Battle of Adwa. Under the treaty’s terms, an earlier agreement—the Treaty of Wuchale of 1889—was unilaterally abrogated, and Ethiopia’s sovereign independence was officially recognised by Italy. The following year, both Britain and France signed treaties which recognised Ethiopia as an independent country. | Africa |
| Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 | | 20th | 26 August 1936 | | The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 recognised the Suez Canal as an integral part of Egypt, and Egypt as a sovereign, independent state. Though the treaty officially ended more than half a century of British occupation in Egypt, Egyptian sovereignty remained circumscribed by its terms. It provided for a 20-year Anglo-Egyptian military and defence alliance and allowed Britain to impose martial law and censorship in Egypt in the case of an international emergency. In 1951, the treaty was unilaterally abrogated by Egypt’s Wafd government. | Africa |
| Second Italo-Ethiopian War | Italian Invasion | 20th | 3 October 1935 | 19 February 1937 | The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ethiopian Empire from late 1935 to early 1937. This war of aggression has been understood as an expansionist policy characteristic of the Axis powers in the years preceding the Second World War. While both Italy and Ethiopia were members of the League of Nations, the League was ineffective when Italy violated Article X of its Covenant, and Ethiopia was annexed and subjected to Italian military occupation. The war has been known as The Ethiopian War in Italy and The Italian Invasion in Ethiopia. | Africa |
| Battle of Adwa | | 19th | 1 March 1896 | | The Battle of Adwa was a military conflict of 1 March 1896 between the Ethiopian army of King Menilek II and an Italian invading force. Supported by Russian and French equipment, the Ethiopian army outnumbered the Italian soldiers and Eritrean askaris and forced a retreat into Eritrea. This decisive Ethiopian victory was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895-96 and ended Italy’s campaign to expand its colonial empire in the Horn of Africa. As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa and recognised Ethiopia’s sovereign independence. | Africa |
| Treaty of Wuchale | | 19th | 2 May 1889 | | The Treaty of Wuchale was signed between the Ethiopian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in 1889 with the aim of promoting trade relations. Differences between the versions produced in Amharic and Italian led to substantial differences in interpretation. Italy understood one article to impose a protectorate over Ethiopia, while Ethiopia saw it as permitting international diplomacy to be conducted through Italy. Within four years, the acting Emperor of Ethiopia denounced the treaty, and Italy began its unsuccessful attempt to impose the protectorate in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. | Africa |
| British Conquest of Egypt | Anglo-Egyptian War | 19th | July 1882 | September 1882 | The British Conquest of Egypt, also known as the Anglo-Egyptian War, established firm British colonial influence over Egypt. After dissatisfaction with European and Ottoman rule led to a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1879, Britain occupied the country in 1882 to crush the uprising and protect its own financial interests. The British military defeated Egyptian and Sudanese forces and established a ‘veiled protectorate’ over Ottoman Egypt until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers and Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt. | Africa |
| Anglo-Boer War | South African War | 19th | 11 October 1899 | 31 May 1902 | The Anglo-Boer War was a conflict between the British Empire and the two Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State). The conflict broke out in 1899 as a response to the British Empire’s influence in Southern Africa. British forces swiftly occupied the Boer republics, and many Boers responded by engaging in guerrilla warfare. After three years of warfare, aggressive British scorched earth policies brought about the war’s end, and the South African Republic and Orange Free State were both dissolved in 1902. | Africa |
| Treaty of Vereeniging | | 20th | 31 May 1902 | | The Treaty of Vereeniging was a peace treaty that ended the Anglo-Boer War, also known as the South African War and the Boer War. This settlement, signed in May 1902, brought an end to the conflict between the two Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) and Great Britain. The treaty stipulated the surrender of all Boer forces and their weapons to the British forces and promised eventual self-government to the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as British colonies. The Union of South Africa was created eight years later in May 1910. | Africa |
| Angolan War of Independence | Armed Struggle of National Liberation | 20th | 4 February 1961 | 25 April 1974 | The Angolan War of Independence, known in Angola as the Armed Struggle of National Liberation, was a guerrilla war waged by multiple nationalist and separatist movements for the control of Angola. The war began after revolts against the forced cultivation of cotton and coffee left thousands of plantation workers dead. The Portuguese army conducted a counter-insurgency campaign for 13 years, until the war ended when a leftist military coup in Lisbon in 1974 overthrew Portugal's Estado Novo dictatorship and put an end to military action in all of Portugal’s African colonies. | Africa |
| Rhodesian Bush War | Zimbabwe War of Independence | 20th | 4 July 1964 | 12 December 1979 | The Rhodesian Bush War, also called the Zimbabwe War of Independence, was a civil conflict fought in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, and Botswana). The war’s three conflicting forces were the Rhodesian white minority-led government, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army. The origins of the war stemmed from native leaders’ opposition to the conquest of the region by the British South Africa Company. In 1980, Zimbabwe’s independence was recognised internationally for the first time. | Africa |
| South African Border War | Namibian War of Independence | 20th | 26 August 1966 | 15 January 1990 | The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, took place in Namibia (at the time, South West Africa),Zambia, and Angola. When years of petitioning by the South West African People’s Organisation through the UN for Namibian independence from South Africa brought no change, the People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) was formed. Conflict with the South African Defence Force broke out in 1966. The war was ultimately ended by the Tripartite Accord of 1990, which committed to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces from Angola and South West Africa. | Africa |
| Basuto Gun War | Basutoland Rebellion | 19th | 13 September 1880 | 29 April 1881 | The Basuto Gun War, also known as the Basutoland Rebellion, was a late-19th-century conflict between the Basuto people of present-day Lesotho and the Cape Colony in present-day South Africa. The Sotho people were forced to work on white-owned farms and mines, and sovereignty and traditional laws were under threat. When Basutoland chiefs attacked Cape Colony magistrates, troops from the Cape Colony were sent into Basutoland in retaliation. The war is a rare case in Southern African 19th-century history of black African victory against a colonial power. | Africa |
| Somaliland Campaign | Anglo-Somali War | 20th | 1900 | 1920 | The Somaliland Campaign, also known as the Anglo-Somali War, was a set of early-20th century military expeditions by British forces (with Italian and Ethiopian assistance) against the Dervish forces of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the Somali religious leader, in present-day Somalia. Britain dispatched a carrier-based strike force in response to an Islamist uprising against colonial forces which was perceived to threaten British interests in the Greater Middle East. Twenty years of conflict ended with a British-Italian victory and the collapse of the Dervish movement. | Africa |
| Six-Day War | Third Arab–Israeli War | 20th | 5 June 1967 | 10 June 1967 | The Six-Day War, also known as the Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt, Syria and Jordan in 1967. After years of tensions between Israel and its neighbours, the Egyptian president closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli vessels and mobilised the Egyptian military along the Israel border. Israel Defence Forces launched pre-emptive air strikes on Egypt and its allies and seized the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and Golan Heights from Syria. The UN enforced a ceasefire, but geopolitical friction remained. | Africa |
| Franco-Hova Wars | Franco-Malagasy Wars | 19th | December 1883 | September 1895 | The Franco-Hova Wars, also known as the Franco-Malagasy Wars, were two French military interventions in Madagascar. While the Merina Kingdom of Madagascar had steadfastly managed to maintain its independence during the 19th century, in the early 1880s, the French colonial faction advocated an invasion of the island in order to suppress British influence. A treaty signed in 1885 was without effect and led to the Second Madagascar expedition in 1895, which resulted in the French overthrow of the ruling monarchy and the colonisation of Madagascar. | Africa |
| Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty | | 20th | 26 March 1979 | | The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was signed on 26 March 1979, several months after the signing of a pair of political agreements named the Camp David Accords, by the President of Egypt and Prime Minister of Israel. The peace treaty’s main commitments were to mutual recognition, an end to the state of war that had been ongoing since the Arab–Israeli War of 1948, the recognition of the Strait of Tiran as an international waterway, and finally Israel’s withdrawal of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula, which it had captured during the Six-Day War of 1967. | Africa |
| Rif War | War of Melilla | 20th | 1921 | 1926 | The Rif War, also called the War of Melilla, was an armed conflict of the 1920s between occupying colonial Spanish military forces and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco. These latter groups maintained considerable local autonomy and were opposed to Spanish Christian rule. Berber tribes responded to the Spanish government’s attempts to bring the protectorate under their control with guerrilla attacks. France intervened and collaborated with Spain in 1924. By 1926, Spain finally gained effective control of the protectorate's territory. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fes | | 20th | 30 March 1912 | | The Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate in Morocco. The treaty, which was signed in 1912 by the Sultan of Morocco under duress and a French diplomat, allowed France to occupy parts of the country with the pretext of protecting the Sultan from internal opposition and maintaining power via indirect rule. In Fes, the then-capital of Morocco, riots immediately broke out when French officers announced the treaty’s measures. | Africa |
| Treaty of Wad Ras | | 19th | 26 April 1860 | | The Treaty of Wad Ras was a treaty signed between Morocco and Spain in 1860 after the latter’s victory in the War of Tetuan. The treaty granted major concessions to Spain. Morocco was forced to pay an indemnity sum bigger than its governing institution’s treasury, the coastal city of Sidi Ifni became a Spanish possession, Spanish colonies in North Africa were permitted to buy and export lumber harvested from surrounding forests freely, and the territories of the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla were extended further into Moroccan territory. | Africa |
| Hispano-Moroccan War | Tetuán War | 19th | 22 October 1859 | 26 April 1860 | The Hispano-Moroccan War, also known as the Tetuán War, was fought in northern Morocco in the mid-19th century. The war began with a conflict over Spanish settlements in North Africa, including the borders of the city of Ceuta. Such settlements had been subject to attacks by Rifians, a Berber ethnic group originally from the Rif region of north-eastern Morocco. In October 1859, Spain declared war on Morocco in an effort to enforce its own sovereignty over key areas. The war lasted until the Treaty of Wad Ras in April 1860. | Africa |
| Senussi Campaign | Senussi Revolt | 20th | November 1915 | February 1917 | The Senussi Campaign was fought during the First World War by the Kingdom of Italy and the British Empire against the Senussi, a religious order of Arabic nomads in Libya and Egypt. Seeking to divert British forces, the Ottoman Empire persuaded the Grand Senussi to attack British-occupied Egypt and encourage insurrection. The Senussi crossed the Libyan-Egyptian border and fought along the Egyptian coast, and the British forces ultimately defeated the Senussi and retook the coast in 1916. In the interior, fighting campaigns continued for nearly a year until peace was negotiated. | Africa |
| Italo-Turkish War | War of Libya | 20th | 29 September 1911 | 18 October 1912 | The Italo-Turkish War (or, as it is known in Italy, the War of Libya) was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire in 1911-12. Italy sought to gain colonies in North Africa by conquering Turkish provinces in modern-day Libya and took advantage of international uncertainty following the Moroccan crisis of 1911. The war remained at a stalemate for many months until a successful Italian offensive in North Africa in 1912, after which Turkey sought peace and conceded its rights over Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy. | Africa |
| Franco-Moroccan War | | 19th | 6 August 1844 | 10 September 1844 | The Franco-Moroccan War was fought between France and Morocco in 1844. The Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qadir had begun using north-eastern Morocco as a refuge and a recruiting base as early as 1840. In 1843, French military forces chased a group of his supporters deep into Morocco following the Battle of the Smala. The war began with the naval bombardment of the city of Tangier by a French fleet in August. It was brought to an end with the Treaty of Tangier in September, whereby Morocco officially recognised Algeria as a French possession for the first time. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tangier | | 19th | 10 September 1844 | | The Treaty of Tangier was signed on 10 September 1844 between the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Morocco. The treaty brought an end to the Franco-Moroccan War of 1844, which had ensued after the retreat of the Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qadir into Morocco following French victories over many of his tribal supporters during the French conquest of Algeria. Under the treaty’s terms, Morocco agreed to recognise Algeria as a French possession, reduce the size of its garrison in the north-eastern city of Oujda, and establish a commission to demarcate the border with Algeria. | Africa |
| 1541 Algiers Expedition | | 16th | 20 October 1541 | 1 November 1541 | The 1541 Algiers Expedition was an attempted attack against the regency of Algiers (present-day Algeria) by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, in the mid-16th century. Algiers had been under the control of the Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent since its capture in 1529, and Charles V sought revenge for the recent siege of Buda, which concluded with the capture of the Hungarian city by the Ottoman Empire. Damage to Spanish and Genoese fleets in a storm, however, led to their abandonment of the venture and the overall failure of the expedition. | Africa |
| Algerian War | Algerian Revolution | 20th | 1 November 1954 | 19 March 1962 | The Algerian War, also known as the Algerian Revolution, was a decolonisation war of 1954-1962. In 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and by the mid-20th century enthusiasm for autonomy and self-rule was growing. In 1954, Algeria’s National Liberation Front (FLN) created an armed wing to engage in struggle against French authorities. After major demonstrations in Algiers in favour of independence and a UN resolution recognising this right, France opened negotiations with the FLN resulting in Algerian independence from France and the collapse of the Fourth French Republic. | Africa |
| Adubi War | Egba Uprising | 20th | June 1918 | July 1918 | The Adubi War, also known as the Egba Uprising, was a conflict in the British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. In 1918, the colonial government introduced direct taxes on top of existing forced labour practices in the area. In June, an uprising across the region began, and hostilities ensued between some 31,000 Egba rebels and colonial troops until the rebellion was ended and the leaders killed or arrested three weeks later. | Africa |
| First Boer War | Transvaal War | 19th | 16 December 1880 | 23 March 1881 | The First Boer War, also known as the Transvaal War, was fought between Britain and the Boers of the Transvaal (the name of the South African Republic under British administration) in 1880-81. In the 19th century, British expansion into South Africa had been motivated by both a desire to control trade routes near the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of huge mineral deposits in the area. Transvaal Boers, who increasingly resented the 1877 British annexation of the Transvaal, revolted in 1880. The war resulted in a Boer victory and subsequent independence of the South African Republic. | Africa |
| Franco-Algerian War | | 17th | 18 October 1681 | 27 September 1688 | The Franco-Algerian War was a military conflict of the 1680s between France and the Barbary corsairs. In October 1680, corsairs captured several French vessels and took their captains and crews to Algiers as slaves, and the Dey of Algiers officially declared war on the French. In response, France undertook naval bombardments of Algiers in 1682 and 1683. A 100-year peace was agreed but, after Algiers violated the treaty in 1688, France again bombarded the city. A conclusive peace agreement, signed on 27 September 1688, ended the war. | Africa |
| South African Wars | Confederation Wars | 19th | 1879 | 1915 | The South African Wars, also known as the Confederation Wars, were a series of wars in a large part of southern Africa between 1879 and 1915. The discoveries in the region of gold in 1862 and diamonds in 1867 led to the widespread pursuit of commerce and resources, which in turn led to increasing hostilities between European colonial powers and indigenous Africans. Britain’s efforts to forge the diverse states of southern Africa into one single British-controlled federation were strongly resisted by the Cape Colony, the Boer republics, and independent African states. The European regions that had been most dominant in 1879 were, in 1910, all dissolved into the singular Union of South Africa. | Africa |
| Maritz Rebellion | Five Shilling Rebellion | 20th | 15 September 1914 | 4 February 1915 | The Maritz Rebellion, also known as the Five Shilling Rebellion, was an armed uprising in South Africa at the start of the First World War. The rebellion was led by Boers who sought the re-establishment of the South African Republic in the Transvaal, which was at the time a British colony. Some Boers were opposed to the South African government’s decision to undertake offensive operations in the German colony of South West Africa. The Maritz Rebellion was suppressed, and the South African army continued their operations into German South West Africa and conquered it by July 1915. | Africa |
| South-West Africa Campaign | | 20th | 15 September 1914 | 9 July 1915 | The South-West Africa campaign was the conquest, at the beginning of the First World War, of South West Africa by the Union of South Africa, whose forces were acting on behalf of the British imperial government. The South African government decided to undertake offensive operations in the German colony, which bordered the South African Republic, despite sympathy among the Boer population of South Africa for the German cause. South Africa defeated the German forces in South West Africa, occupied the colony in 1915, and from 1919 administered it as a League of Nations mandate territory. | Africa |
| Malaboch War | | 19th | April 1894 | July 1894 | The Malaboch War was a conflict between Chief Malaboch of the Bahananwa people and the government of the South African Republic. After the South African Republic (known under British rule as the Transvaal) was returned to the Boers in 1881 by the British, Malaboch refused to pay taxes to its government. In 1894, the government asked Malaboch to leave his kingdom; when he refused, it began a military drive against him. The South African Republic forces were swiftly victorious, and the Bahananwa surrendered. | Africa |
| Chilembwe Uprising | | 20th | 23 January 1915 | 26 January 1915 | The Chilembwe uprising was a rebellion against British colonial rule in Nyasaland (present-day Malawi) during the First World War in response to forced labour, racial discrimination, and new demands imposed on indigenous populations following the outbreak of the war. An uprising in early 1915 was met by a white settler militia mobilised by the colonial authorities, and many of the rebels fled towards Portuguese East Africa (present-day Mozambique). Although the rebellion did not itself achieve success, it had lasting effects on the British system of administration in Nyasaland and led to some reforms. | Africa |
| Abushiri Revolt | Slave-Trader Revolt | 19th | 1888 | 1889 | The Abushiri Revolt, also known as the Slave-Trader Revolt, was a rebellion in the late-19th century by Arab and Swahili populations of the coastal areas of East Africa whose administration had been ceded to the German East African Company in 1888 by the Sultan of Zanzibar. When the organisation attempted to take over the coastal towns, it was met with fierce resistance both by the Arab elite, who sought to protect their trade in enslaved people and ivory, and also by the indigenous population. A rebellion spread along the coast of present-day Tanzania and was ultimately quashed by a German expeditionary corps. | Africa |
| Barue Uprising | Barue Rebellion | 20th | 1917 | 1918 | The Barue Uprising, also known as the Barue Rebellion, was an insurrection in Portuguese Mozambique during the First World War. During the war, Portuguese colonisers subjected indigenous populations to forced labour, coercion by press gangs, and sexual violence. In 1917, the population rebelled, and various groups of Barue rebels fought independent campaigns. Britain disapproved of Portugal’s tactics and so, despite having received troops to suppress the Chilembwe rebellion, refused to send support to Portugal in return. Portugal suppressed the rebels with a violent regime of butchering, plundering, and enslavement. | Africa |
| Portuguese Colonial War | War of Liberation | 20th | 4 February 1961 | 25 April 1974 | The Portuguese Colonial War, also known as the War of Liberation, was fought between Portugal and emerging nationalist movements in Portugal’s African colonies (Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique) from 1961-1974. Unlike other European powers, the ultra-conservative Portuguese Estado Novo regime did not withdraw from its African colonies in the 1950s or 1960s; armed independence movements became active and were heavily supported by the Communist Bloc. The overthrow of Estado Novo by a military coup in 1974 brought the conflict to an end, and all Portuguese African territories became sovereign states. | Africa |
| Mau Mau Rebellion | Kenya Emergency | 20th | 1952 | 1960 | The Mau Mau Rebellion, also known as the Kenya Emergency, was a war in the British Kenya Colony between British authorities and the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA) from 1952-1960. Kenya was claimed as a British protectorate in 1895 and a colony in 1920. Throughout the 20th century, the colonial government forced Kenyans to become wage labourers, and indigenous groups had vast areas of their land expropriated. KLFA insurgency began to grow, and a state of emergency was declared in 1952; years of conflict were marked by war crimes committed by both sides. | Africa |
| Second Barbary War | US–Algerian War | 19th | 17 June 1815 | 19 June 1815 | The Second Barbary War, also known as the US-Algerian War, was fought between the USA and the Barbary Coast states of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers in 1815. The First Barbary War ended in 1805 in a truce, and the focus of the USA shifted to Britain and the War of 1812. The Barbary pirates then returned to their practice of attacking American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean and ransoming their crews; at the end of the war of 1812, however, the USA renewed its attention to Barbary piracy and initiated a naval attack on Algiers. The brief war was ended by a treaty granting the USA full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea. | Africa |
| Wadai War | Ouaddai War | 20th | 1906 | 1912 | The Wadai War, also known as the Ouaddai War, was a conflict between France and the Wadai Empire and its allies in the early 20th century. The Wadai Sultanate, located in present-day Chad, Sudan, and the Central African Republic, lost its independence from the French in 1904. Wadai fiercely resisted the French invasion, and open conflict broke out in 1906. Wadai’s armies inflicted several defeats on the French colonial forces, but much of the empire fell to France in 1909. Wadai was completely occupied by the French in 1912, when the sultanate was abolished. | Africa |
| 1904–1905 Uprising in Madagascar | | 20th | 17 November 1904 | 30 August 1905 | The 1904-1905 Uprising in Madagascar was a rebellion by Malagasy people against Madagascar’s French colonisers. Madagascar was made a French protectorate in 1895, which was immediately followed by armed resistance. In response, France initiated a “pacification” effort, which saw the erasure of Malagasy culture, executions without trial, heavy taxation, and forced labour. The announcement of yet more changes led to an armed revolt in the southeast in 1904. Early rebel victories were not to last; despite another uprising in 1947, Madagascar would remain under French rule until 1960. | Africa |
| Volta-Bani War | | 20th | November 1915 | February 1917 | The Volta-Bani War was an anti-colonial rebellion that took place in parts of French West Africa (present-day Burkina Faso and Mali) between an indigenous African army and French colonial forces. The war started after the introduction of conscription of West Africans into the French army in the First World War. In 1915, a group of representatives from a dozen villages gathered and resolved to resist the French occupation, and conflict ensued until 1917, when the French army defeated the insurgents. The war was a major factor in the creation of the colony of Haute Volta (present-day Burkina Faso) after the First World War. | Africa |
| Mandingo Wars | | 19th | 1883 | 1898 | The Mandingo Wars were a series of conflicts of 1883-1898 between France and the Wassoulou Empire of the Mandingo, a West African people spread across present-day Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. The Mandingo waged a first war on the French to oppose their efforts to colonise West Africa; a second war in 1894 resulted in a Mandingo victory and ended the Ivory Coast protectorate. The final war, of 1898, saw the Mandingo attack the Kong Empire, a French ally. The wars ended in victory for France, who established dominance over the Ivory Coast and annexed the Wassoulou Empire into French West Africa. | Africa |
| South African Invasion of Lesotho | | 20th | 22 September 1998 | May 1999 | The South African Invasion of Lesotho, codenamed Operation Boleas, was a military invasion by South Africa’s National Defence Force. In May 1998, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy Party won parliamentary elections overwhelmingly. Allegations of vote fraud arose and widespread riots followed the opposition lawsuit’s failure. In September, Nelson Mandela, leader of the social-democratic government, approved troop deployment to Lesotho to quash the coup d’état; the occupation lasted seven months. | Africa |
| Second Matabele War | First Chimurenga | 19th | March 1896 | October 1897 | The Second Matabele War, also known as the First Chimurenga, was fought between the British South Africa Company (BSAC) against the Matabele people in the late 19th century in the area later known as Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe). In 1896, a revolt by the Matabele against the authority of the BSAC was sparked by worsening conditions due to drought and locust plagues. Britain responded by sending troops to suppress the Matabele and Shona people, though it took months to break the siege entirely. The war resulted in no significant change in BSAC policies such as taxation. | Africa |
| Vandalic War | | 6th | June 533 | March 534 | The Vandalic War was fought in North Africa between the Byzantine Empire and the Vandalic Kingdom of Carthage in the sixth century. The Vandals had occupied Roman North Africa in the previous century, established an independent kingdom, undertaken naval attacks across the Mediterranean, sacked Rome, and defeated a Roman invasion. In 533, the Eastern Roman emperor launched an attack on the Vandal king, and the two armies met in battle near Carthage. The war resulted in a Roman victory and Africa was formally restored to imperial rule, though beyond the old Vandal kingdom Mauri tribes soon rose up in rebellion. | Africa |
| Simba Rebellion | Orientale Revolt | 20th | October 1963 | November 1965 | The Simba Rebellion, also known as the Orientale Revolt, was a regional uprising which took place in the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1963 and 1965 in the wider context of the Congo Crisis and the Cold War. The rebellion in the eastern part of the country was led by followers of Patrice Lumumba, who was ousted from power in 1960 and killed in 1961. Simba rebels initially succeeded, capturing much of eastern Congo and declaring a "people's republic" at Stanleyville. However, internal conflicts, lack of organisation, and tensions with international allies weakened the insurgency. The Congolese government, supported by Western powers and mercenaries, launched successful counter-offensives in late 1964, leading to the disintegration of the rebellion by November 1965. | Africa |
| Treaty of Aranjuez | | 18th | 12 April 1779 | | The Treaty of Aranjuez was signed between Spain and Morocco in 1780. The coastal city of Melilla had been a Spanish possession since the late 15th century after it was abandoned following disputes between North African rulers, but Spanish sovereignty over the city was disputed intermittently for centuries. Spain sought to lessen the chance that Morocco would agree to British requests to declare war on the Spanish, as had happened in 1774. The signing of the treaty restored peace to the territory; according to its terms, Morocco officially recognised Spanish rule over Melilla. | Africa |
| Pretoria Convention | | 19th | 3 August 1881 | | The Pretoria Convention, also known as Convention for the Settlement of the Transvaal Territory, 3 August 1881, was a peace treaty that ended the First Boer War of 1880-81 between the Transvaal Boers and Great Britain. After the British Empire’s defeat, under the convention, the South African Republic regained self-government (nominal British suzerainty rather than full sovereignty). The treaty was superseded four years later by the London Convention; it incorporated much of the previous treaty and amended the country’s right to treaties with the Orange Free State without British approval. | Africa |
| Accra Riots | | 20th | 28 February 1948 | 3 March 1948 | The Accra Riots were a conflict of 1948 in Accra, which at the time was the capital city of the British colony of the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). On 28 February, a protest march by veterans of the Second World War who sought to bring about the dispensation of pensions was broken up by police, and three leaders of the group were killed. In response, people in Accra took to the streets in riot; the unrest lasted for five days. In their wake, the British colonial government set up the Watson Commission, which paved the way for constitutional changes that led ultimately to Ghana’s independence. | Africa |
| War of the Golden Stool | Yaa Asantewaa War | 20th | March 1900 | September 1900 | The War of the Golden Stool, also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War, was a campaign within a series of conflicts between Britain and the Ashanti Empire, an autonomous state in West Africa (in present-day Ghana). Ashanti had been occupied by British troops in 1896, and in 1900 the Ashanti people rose up against colonial rule and the threat to their rights, culture, and traditions. The war ended within six months with Ashanti’s loss of sovereignty and annexation by Britain. | Africa |
| Koacen Revolt | Tuarag Rebellion of 1916-17 | 20th | 17 December 1916 | 3 March 1917 | The Kaocen Revolt, also known as the Tuareg Rebellion of 1916-17, was an uprising against French colonial rule in the north of present-day Niger during the Second World War. The militantly anti-French Sanusiya Sufi religious order declared a Jihad against the French colonialists in 1914, and anti-French sentiment grew during several years of severe drought, taxation, and the abolition of the slave trade. In 1916, insurgents seized all the major towns of northern Niger. By 1917, French forces suppressed the rebellion, reclaimed the towns, and killed the rebel leaders. | Africa |
| Italian Guerrilla War in Ethiopia | | 20th | 27 November 1941 | October 1943 | The Italian Guerrilla War in Ethiopia took place during the Second World War in Ethiopia and Somalia, in a short-lived attempt to re-establish Italian East Africa. Following the military defeat of Mussolini’s forces in Ethiopia in 1941 and General Guglielmo Nasi’s surrender of the last troops of the Italian colonial army, many of his personnel decided to start a guerrilla war in East Africa’s mountains and deserts. By 1943, the rebellion was suppressed by Allied forces operating alongside the Ethiopian army. | Africa |
| 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion | | 20th | 2 July 1945 | 7 July 1945 | The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was an uprising by tribesmen of the Habr Je’lo clan in the former British Somaliland protectorate against the British colonial authorities. Recent decades had seen other revolts in response to Britain’s imposition of taxes and conscription, and Somali nationalist sentiment grew. Massive riots began in 1945 in response to Britain’s decision to poison grazing lands as part of an anti-locust campaign. Britain launched a counter-insurgency campaign and killed the rebellion’s leader, Sheikh Bashir, but the unrest continued and anti-colonialist sentiment only increased in Somaliland. | Africa |
| Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 | Rodd Treaty | 19th | 14 May 1897 | | The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897, also known as the Rodd Treaty, was an agreement between Britain and Ethiopia pertaining to border issues between Ethiopia and British Somaliland. Under the Anglo-Ethiopian treaty, Britain ceded the north-eastern part of the Haud Plateau, a fertile traditional Somali grazing area spanning the northern Ethiopian-Somali border, to Ethiopia. By the late 20th century, however, the boundary dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia had not been settled, and Somali nomads continued to move back and forth across the plateau as they had done for centuries. | Africa |
| Conquest of Algeria | Pacification of Algeria | 19th | 1830 | 1903 | The Conquest of Algeria, also known as the Pacification of Algeria, was a series of military operations by French colonial forces that sought to quell tribal rebellions and massacres of French settlers in rural Algeria after the French conquest of the Regency of Algiers of 1830. After defeating their Ottoman opponents and capturing Algeria and amid internal political strife in France, French military forces undertook campaigns to control the region and suppress rebellions over a span of 70 years, and engaged in a punitive scorched-earth policy against the Algerian population. | Africa |
| Sétif and Guelma Massacre | | 20th | 8 May 1945 | 26 June 1945 | The Sétif and Guelma Massacre was a series of attacks by French colonial forces and settler militias on Algerian civilians in French Algeria, in 1945. On 8 May, when French police fired on demonstrators at a protest in the town of Sétif, Algerians rioted and attacked and killed French settlers. The French authorities responded in turn by indiscriminately murdering tens of thousands of Muslims around Sétif. The attacks had a significant negative impact on French-Algerian relations and paved the way for the Algerian War in 1954. | Africa |
| First Barbary War | Tripolitan War | 19th | 10 May 1801 | 10 June 1805 | The First Barbary War, also known as the Tripolitan War, was a conflict of 1801-05 which pitted forces of the United States and Sweden against Tripolitania, a historic region and former province of Libya. Tripolitania declared war after the United States and Sweden refused to make tributary payments in exchange for a commitment to ending attacks on merchant ships in the Mediterranean by Barbary corsairs. After a series of inconclusive sea battles, the war was ended with a treaty in 1805 but relations remained strained until the Second Barbary War began in 1815. | Africa |
| Tunisian Campaign | Battle of Tunisia | 20th | 17 November 1942 | 13 May 1943 | The Tunisian Campaign, also known as the Battle of Tunisia, was a series of conflicts between Axis and Allied forces during the North African campaign of the Second World War. In early 1942, after the US entered the war, US troops were deployed via French North Africa whose colonies aligned themselves with the Vichy government. Hitler sent troops to Tunisia to maintain control of the Mediterranean Sea and prevent an invasion of Italy. By 1943, the Allies (British imperial forces, a Greek contingent with US and French corps) won an overwhelming victory over their German and Italian opponents. | Africa |
| Ifni War | Forgotten War | 20th | 23 October 1957 | 30 June 1958 | The Ifni War, also known in Spain as the Forgotten War, was a series of incursions into Spanish West Africa (present-day Morocco and Western Sahara) by Moroccan insurgents in the 1950s. When Morocco won its independence from French and Spanish colonial rule in 1956, many Moroccans sought to fight for the independence of all of Spain’s remaining colonial possessions, including the coastal city of Sidi Ifni. When demonstrations began in 1957, Spain’s Franco dispatched Spanish Legion forces to quell the uprisings. Spain retained possession of Ifni until 1969 and Spanish Sahara until 1975. | Africa |
| East African Campaign | Abysinnian Campaign | 20th | 10 June 1940 | 27 November 1941 | The East African Campaign, also known as the Abyssinian Campaign, was fought by Allied forces mostly from the British Empire against Italy during the Second World War. In 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France, making Italian forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French. The Allies aimed to protect sea lanes through the Red Sea and also defend Egypt and the Suez Canal from potential Italian invasion. The campaign began in mid-1940, and by late 1941 almost all Italian troops had surrendered which led to the dissolution of Italian East Africa. | Africa |
| Ngcayechibi's War | Fengu-Gcaleka War | 19th | 1877 | 1879 | Ngcayechibi's War, also known as the Fengu-Gcaleka War, was the ninth and final Xhosa War between the British Empire and the Xhosa people. The war also involved Cape Colony, whose partial independence from Britain was threatened by a plan to strengthen Britain’s control of southern Africa by uniting its states into a Confederation. A frontier war was seen as an opportunity for annexation. A severe drought added to growing political tensions, and 1877 saw the beginning of many conflicts. By 1879, the Xhosa were defeated and all their remaining territory was annexed. | Africa |
| Tabora Offensive | | 20th | April 1916 | September 1916 | The Tabora Offensive was an Anglo-Belgian offensive into German East Africa during the First World War. The Allies sought to gain control of an important railway network and keep the Ruanda-Urundi territory under Belgian military occupation. Germany sought to divert Allied resources from the Western Front to Africa. Conflict ensued and Belgian Congo forces captured Tabora, the largest town in the interior of the colony. After the war, as stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede control of German East Africa to the Allies. | Africa |
| London Convention (1884) | | 19th | 27 February 1884 | | The London Convention, known officially as the Convention Between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the South African Republic, was a treaty signed on 27 February 1884 by representatives of Great Britain and the South African Republic. The treaty followed the retrocession of the South African Republic after the First Boer War. It restored the country’s name, which had changed to the Transvaal Territory during the British occupation, and also stipulated that it had the right to enter into a treaty with the Orange Free State without British approval. | Africa |
| Adamawa Wars | | 19th, 20th | January 1899 | August 1907 | The Adamawa Wars were fought between German colonial forces and the Islamic Sokoto Empire, mostly north of the German colony of Kamerun (present-day Cameroon). In the 1890s, Adamawa, the largest Sokoto territory proximate to Kamerun, was undergoing a great deal of internal struggle. Determined to expand its colony, Germany seized the opportunity when a Mahdist state developed in Adamawa and began military expeditions under the pretext of ending the local Islamic slave trade in 1899. Eight years of war ended with the German annexation of Adamawa and the dissolution of the Sokoto Caliphate. | Africa |
| Xhosa Wars | Cape Frontier Wars | 18th | 1779 | 1879 | The Xhosa Wars, also known as the Cape Frontier Wars, were nine wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa from 1779-1879. By the mid-1700s, European colonisers encountered the cattle-herding Xhosa people, and tensions grew as many Xhosa were displaced and those remaining were relocated to towns and subjected to colonial control. The wars that ensued were the longest in the history of European colonialism in Africa. The wars ended in the Xhosas’ defeat and paved the way for the Confederation Wars and the Anglo-Boer War. | Africa |
| Bambatha Rebellion | Zulu Rebellion | 20th | 1906 | 1906 | The Bambatha Rebellion, also known as the Zulu Rebellion, was a conflict of 1906 led by the leader of the Zondi clan of the Zulu people against British rule and taxation in the Colony of Natal, South Africa. Following the Anglo-Boer War, increased competition meant that British employers struggled to recruit black farm workers. The colonial authorities introduced a poll tax as well as the existing hut tax to pressure Zulus to enter the labour market. A series of guerrilla attacks by discontented Zulus followed; British troops responded with machine guns and cannons and swiftly quelled the rebellion. | Africa |
| Ashanti–Fante War | Ghana War | 19th | 1806 | 1807 | The Ashanti–Fante War, also known as the Ghana War, was fought between the Ashanti Empire and the Fante Confederacy in present-day Ghana. The Fante had grown wealthy by controlling trade between Europeans and the interior and aligned themselves with the British, whereas the Ashanti people had resisted British efforts to colonise them and aligned themselves with the Dutch to limit British influence. Rising tensions led to a war in 1806 which resulted in Ashanti victory in 1807, though this was the first of many wars in the region throughout the century. | Africa |
| First Anglo-Ashanti War | | 19th | 1823 | 1831 | The First Anglo-Ashanti War was initiated five between the Ashanti Empire and the British Empire and its Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) allies when the Ashanti people began a territorial dispute with the Fante, another Ghanaian ethnic group, and a client state of Great Britain. In 1823, the region’s governor led British forces against the Ashanti. The Ashanti were victorious, and defeated the British again, along with their African allies, a year later. The British were forced to withdraw in 1828, and the war ended with the Ashanti accepting a river boundary between the two regions in 1831. | Africa |
| Third Anglo-Ashanti War | First Ashanti Expedition | 19th | 1873 | c1874 | The Third Anglo-Ashanti War, also known as the First Ashanti Expedition, was one of five conflicts in the 19th century between the Ashanti Empire (present-day Ghana) and the British Empire and its African allies. In 1872, Britain expanded their British Gold Coast territory by purchasing Dutch Gold Coast from the Dutch; this included the town of Elmina, claimed by the Ashanti. They wanted to maintain their imperial stronghold over coastal areas where peoples, such as the Fante and Ga, had come under British protection and invaded the new British protectorate; battles ensued until 1874. | Africa |
| Bond of 1844 | | 19th | 6 March 1844 | | The Bond of 1844 was a treaty signed by the British government and the Chiefs of the Fante people of the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). The Fante, who had controlled coastal trade routes for centuries, in the 1800s were increasingly subjugated by the Asante, another Ghanaian ethnic group. Britain sought to expand its trade and influence in West Africa, and so took the opportunity to extend its protection to the Fante in 1844 with a treaty that committed to protecting Fante people and property and brought the Gold Coast under formal British colonial rule. | Africa |
| Mfecane Wars | Lifaqane Wars | 19th | 1818 | 1835 | The Mfecane Wars, also known as the Lifaqane Wars, were a series of military conflicts in southern Africa from 1818 to 1835. Growing tensions amongst tribes due to drought, famine, resource scarcity, overpopulation, overgrazing, and the rise of the Zulu military kingdom led to warfare from Cape Colony to East and Central Africa as kingdoms battled for resources. Areas of South Africa were temporarily depopulated when refugees fled, easing the way for white colonial expansion. The impact of the wars was felt far beyond South Africa, as people fled as far as Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. | Africa |
| First Free State-Basotho War | Senekal's War | 19th | 19 March 1858 | 1 June 1858 | The First Free State–Basotho War, also known as Senekal’s War, was one of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom and the white settlers in what is now known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. In the early 19th century, the Basotho king allowed British, Boers and Nguni escapees into his settlements. In 1854, faced with the rising costs of maintaining their territory’s sovereignty, Britain handed it to the Boers who named it the Orange Free State (OFS). Tensions rose over territorial rights, and in 1858 the OFS declared war on the Basotho which endured for several years. | Africa |
| Second Free State-Basotho War | Seqiti War | 19th | 1865 | 11 April 1866 | The Second Free State–Basotho War, also known as the Seqiti War, was one of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom and the white settlers in what is now known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. An uneasy peace followed the first Free State–Basotho War and, in 1865, the Orange Free State declared war again. Its troops seized the cattle and destroyed the crops of the Basotho living in the territory and, when the Basotho ran out of food supplies, they were forced to accept a treaty in 1866. The wars ultimately resulted in the Basotho accepting annexation as a part of the British Empire. | Africa |
| Bamileke War | Cameroonian Independence War | 20th | 1955 | 1964 | The Bamileke War, also known as the Cameroonian Independence War, was a struggle by Bamileke Cameroon's nationalist movement for independence from France. The movement was led by the Cameroonian Peoples Union (UPC),who wanted to separate from France and establish a socialist economy. The war began when riots broke out in 1955. Cameroon gained independence in 1960, though the rebellion went on until 1964. The war has also been dubbed the Hidden War because it occurred at the same time as the peak of the Algerian War, France's most substantial colonial independence struggle. | Africa |
| Sagbadre War | | 18th | 30 March 1784 | 18 June 1784 | The Sagbadre War was a punitive expedition by Denmark and its allies against the Anlo Ewe people of southern Togo, southern Benin, southwest Nigeria, and south-eastern Ghana. Because Anlo had acquired significant territory from its neighbours in 18th-century wars, Denmark used raids made into Danish territory in 1783 to justify an expedition against Anlo to secure trade rights. In 1784, Denmark and its allies raised towns and Angolan civilians were forced to flee. The war ended in Anlo defeat; it lost all the territory it had previously acquired and Denmark established a trade monopoly. | Africa |
| Menalamba Rebellion | | 19th | 1895 | 1903 | The Menalamba Rebellion was an uprising in Madagascar by the Sakalava people against French colonial forces. In 1895, France captured the royal palace and a year later officially annexed Madagascar and declared it a colony. The Queen and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power. Popular resistance sparked a guerrilla war against foreigners, Christianity, and political corruption. The uprising spread rapidly, but by 1897 hunger forced many rebel groups to surrender. The rebellion continued sporadically in remote areas until 1903. | Africa |
| Second Congo War | Great War of Africa | 20th, 21st | 2 August 1998 | 18 July 2003 | The Second Congo War, also known as the Great War of Africa, began in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in 1998, a year after the First Congo War. The new government permitted Hutu armies to regroup in eastern Congo, resulting in a 1998 Rwanda-Uganda joint invasion. The five-year conflict saw government forces supported by Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe pitted against rebels and soldiers backed by Uganda and Rwanda. In 2002, the government negotiated deals with Rwanda, Uganda, and internal rebel groups. The war officially ended when the transitional DRC government took power in 2003. | Africa |
| First Congo War | Africa’s First World War | 20th | 24 October 1996 | 16 May 1997 | The First Congo War, also known as Africa’s First World War, was a military conflict mostly in Zaire (present-day DRC). Zaire saw regional conflicts and growing resentments of government corruption after the Congo Crisis. When Rwanda invaded Zaire in 1996 to defeat rebel groups in the country, Uganda, Burundi, Angola, and Eritrea swiftly joined the invasion. The Zairean government was supported by allied militias and Sudan but soon collapsed, culminating in a foreign invasion and installing a new government but little political change; instability led to the Second Congo War in 1998. | Africa |
| Bailundo Revolt | | 20th | 15 May 1902 | 22 March 1904 | The Bailundo Revolt was an uprising by the Ovimbundu Kingdom of Bailundo (in present-day Angola) against Portuguese colonial authorities. In 1902, the price of root rubber plummeted in the region, causing an economic depression. This, with a smallpox epidemic and famine, led to rising hostilities that peaked an indigenous population insurrection against European immigrants and aboriginal loyalists. Ovimbundu troops launched raids on Portuguese trading posts and were countered by Portuguese, African and Boer troops; the Ovimbudu continued resistance in remote areas until 1904. | Africa |
| Bale Revolt | Bale Peasant Movement | 20th | 1963 | 1970 | The Bale Revolt, also known as the Bale Peasant Movement, was an uprising in Bale, Ethiopia, by local Oromo and Somali people against the feudalist systems of the Ethiopian Empire in the 1960s. Discontent among Oromo and Somali peasants rose rapidly in the early 1960s in response to bureaucratic corruption and the expropriation of land. In 1963, the local population refused to pay a new exorbitant head tax and skirmishes began, which turned into six-year-long guerrilla war. Military engineers from Britain and the US helped the Ethiopian government to quell the insurgency by 1970. | Africa |
| Barra War | Anglo-Niumi War | 19th | 1831 | 1832 | The Barra War, also known as the Anglo-Niumi War, was a conflict of the 1830s between the Kingdom of Niumi, now in The Gambia, and the British Empire. Britain aimed to cut off French competition in the Gambia River. The French were still able to trade by accessing their settlement in Niumi without British interference. Tensions rose as Britain encroached on the Kingdom of Niumi and founded a fort there. When Britain set troops to defend it, fighting broke out in 1831. When significant support arrived from Sierra Leone, the war was ended with a treaty in 1832. | Africa |
| Kolongongo War | | 20th | 1914 | 1917 | The Kolongongo War was a conflict of 1914 between Portuguese colonial forces and the Mbunda, a Bantu people who migrated from northern to south-eastern Angola and then to present-day Zambia. Immediately before the First World War, Portugal sought to expand its powers in Africa, and the Mbunda responded with resistance in an effort to defend their land and rights. The war resulted in the Portuguese conquest of the Mbunda in East Angola and the dissolution of the ancient Kingdom of Kongo. By the 1920s, Portugal established full colonial control over their entire territory. | Africa |
| Malagasy Uprising | Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947 | 20th | 29 March 1947 | February 1949 | The Malagasy Uprising, also known as Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947, was a nationalist insurgency against French colonial rule in Madagascar in the late-1940s. Since the end of the Second World War, Madagascan politicians sought independence legally but the Socialist Ramadier administration’s response radicalised many Malagasy people. In 1947, Malagasy nationalists coordinated attacks on French military bases and plantations. France responded by transferring soldiers from other colonies in Africa, engaging in terror tactics, and violently repressed the rebellion by 1949. | Africa |
| Nandi Resistance | | 19th, 20th | 1890 | 1906 | The Nandi Resistance was a military conflict between members of the Kalenjin people and British colonial authorities in present-day Kenya from 1890-1905. In the late 19th century, resistance by local populations to British colonial rule was growing in the region. The Nandi people sought to protect their homelands from colonial domination, and an uprising ensued in 1895. The conflict lasted for a decade until 1905 when a British colonel asked to meet the Nandi leader to negotiate a truce but proceeded to shoot him and his entourage upon arrival. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fomena | | 19th | 14 March 1874 | | The Treaty of Fomena was signed by representatives of the Ashanti Empire and the British Empire on 14 March 1874. During the 19th century, the British fought multiple wars with the Ashantis in the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). The Ashanti sought to control coastal states, while Britain aimed to establish a protectorate and keep other colonial forces away from gold reserves. The wars ended in Ashanti defeat, and a treaty was drawn up. The Ashanti were to pay 50,000 ounces of gold to the British, renounce their claims to key areas, withdraw their troops and end the practice of human sacrifice. | Africa |
| Congo–Arab War | Belgo-Arab War | 19th | 1892 | 1894 | The Congo–Arab War, also known as the Belgo–Arab War, was a proxy war in Central Africa between the forces of Belgian King Leopold II's Congo Free State and various Zanzibari Arab slave traders, all of whom were contending for control of Congo’s wealth—in particular, its ivory trade—in the late-19th century. Leopold II had once collaborated with the Swahili-Arab economic and political powers but began a war in 1892 under the pretext of a Christian anti-slavery crusade. After two years, the war ended in a victory for the Congo Free State by early 1894. | Africa |
| Western Desert Campaign | Desert War | 20th | 11 June 1940 | 4 February 1943 | The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the main theatre in the North African Campaign of the Second World War. The war saw many Allied and Axis forces pitted against each other; it began in 1940 with the Italian declaration of war and the invasion of Egypt from Libya. The British responded with military raids. Mussolini sought help from Hitler, who sent a small German force to Tripoli in early 1941. Many battles were waged over several years until the remaining Axis forces surrendered to the combined Allied forces in May 1943 during the Tunisian campaign. | Africa |
| Kamerun Campaign | Cameroons Campaign | 20th | 6 August 1914 | 10 March 1916 | The Kamerun Campaign, also known as the Cameroons Campaign, took place in the German colony of Kamerun during the First World War. After British, French and Belgian forces invaded the colony in August 1914, most of the campaign took place in Kamerun, which is largely present-day Cameroon. The campaign ended in an Allied victory in 1916. German troops and the colony’s civil administration fled to the nearby neutral colony of Spanish Guinea (Río Muni) and Kamerun became the League of Nations mandates of French Cameroon and British Cameroon by the Treaty of Versailles. | Africa |
| Treaty of Bardo | Treaty of Qsar es-S'id | 19th | 12 May 1881 | | The Treaty of Bardo, also known as the Treaty of Qsar es-S’id, was signed in 1881 and established a French protectorate over Tunisia that remained until the Second World War. A raid on Algeria by a Tunisian tribe had been a pretext for French colonial forces to invade Tunisia a month earlier. The treaty allowed France to control areas of Tunisia and its foreign-policy decisions. The Conventions of La Marsa, which followed two years later, permitted France to intervene in Tunisia’s domestic affairs, which thereby took away the country’s autonomy almost entirely. | Africa |
| Treaty of Angra de Cintra | | 20th | 1 April 1958 | | The Treaty of Angra de Cintra, signed by Spain and Morocco on 1 April 1958, brought an official end to the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Spain had handed over control of the north of the protectorate in 1956, but retained control of the Tarfaya Strip in the south. The treaty stipulated that Spain would return control of this zone to Morocco, though it specified no timeline for the evacuation of Spanish troops from any part of the former protectorate. It also made no mention of any of Morocco’s other territorial claims against Spain in the Sahara or the Mediterranean. | Africa |
| Lagos Treaty of Cession | Treaty of Cession, 6 August 1861 | 19th | 6 August 1861 | | The Lagos Treaty of Cession, also known as the Treaty of Cession, was signed on 6 August 1861 by representatives of the British Empire and Oba Dosunmu, ruler of the Kingdom of Lagos in present-day Nigeria. In the mid-century, Lagos was a key slave trading port. In 1851, Britain entered on this pretext, and—motivated by the threat of nearby French troops—sought to shore up control of the area with a treaty. Under threat of military bombardment, Dosunmu was forced to cede Lagos Island to British colonisers. He retained the title of Oba and his powers, though these were subject to English law. | Africa |
| Togoland Campaign | | 20th | 6 August 1914 | 26 August 1914 | The Togoland Campaign was an invasion by Britain and France of Togoland (a German colony in present-day Ghana and Togo) during the First World War. The Kamina wireless station aided communication between Germany, its navy and overseas colonies, and the Allies sought to prevent its use to coordinate Atlantic attacks. In August 1916, British and French forces advanced from the neighbouring colonies of Gold Coast and Dahomey; Germany surrendered the colony within three weeks. Togoland was partitioned; in 1922, British Togoland and French Togoland were established as League of Nations mandates. | Africa |
| Fifth Xhosa War | War of Nxele | 19th | 1818 | 1819 | The Fifth Xhosa War, also known as the War of Nxele, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. A dispute over animal-herding territory between two Xhosa peoples, the Ngqika and the Gcaleka, sparked a civil war in 1818; a defence treaty legally required the Cape Colony to assist the former. In 1819, 10,000 Xhosa attacked the garrison at Grahamstown. The British authorities repelled them and pushed them eastwards. The empty territory was designated a buffer zone and declared to be off-limits for any side's military occupation. | Africa |
| Seventh Xhosa War | Amatola War | 19th | 1846 | 1847 | The Seventh Xhosa War, also known as the Amatola War, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. The war was sparked by ongoing unrest as a result of British attempts at colonisation and Xhosa resistance to their ongoing dispossession. In 1846, British colonial troops were joined by local mixed-race “Burgher forces,” comprising Khoi and Fengu people as well as British settlers and Boer commandos. By the end of 1847, the Xhosa had been completely subdued after nearly two years of conflict. | Africa |
| Eighth Xhosa War | Mlanjeni's War | 19th | 24 December 1850 | 1853 | The Eighth Xhosa War, also known as Mlanjeni’s War, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. Large numbers of Xhosa people were displaced by colonial authorities, leading to overpopulation outside the colony and the continued oppression of those who remained. In 1850, exorbitant taxes were imposed on local people, as were extreme drought and renewed displacement efforts; in response, many Xhosa mobilised, and a two-year war ensued. This most brutal of all the nine wars ended in the total subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa. | Africa |
| Second Anglo-Ashanti War | | 19th | 1863 | 1864 | The Second Anglo-Ashanti War was one of five conflicts in the 19th century between the Ashanti Empire (in present-day Ghana) and the British Empire and its African allies. Except for a few minor skirmishes, the three decades following the end of the First Anglo-Ashanti War in 1831 had seen peace between the Ashanti and the British. In 1863, a significant Asante delegation crossed a regional boundary to pursue a fugitive and fighting broke out between the British and the Ashanti. The war ended in a stalemate within a year after many troops on both sides were struck down by sickness. | Africa |
| Fourth Xhosa War | | 19th | 1811 | 1812 | The Fourth Xhosa War was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire (in the present-day Eastern Cape in South Africa). By the late 18th century, tensions were high between British colonisers and the cattle-herding Xhosa people whom they displaced. In 1811, the Xhosa occupied the Zuurveld, an area which had acted as a buffer zone between the Cape Colony and Xhosa territory. Conflicts with settlers who encroached on the area ensued, and expeditionary troops from the Cape Colony were sent to force the Xhosa out of the zone. | Africa |
| Shifta War | Gaf Daba | 20th | 1963 | 1967 | The Shifta War, also known as Gaf Daba, was a conflict in which ethnic Somalis in the Northern Frontier District (NFD) of Kenya attempted to join Somalia in the mid-1960s. After the dissolution of all its colonies in East Africa, Britain granted administration of the NFD to Kenya despite both the overwhelming desire of the population to join the Somali Republic and the fact of the NFD’s almost exclusively ethnic Somali population. A fierce war broke out in 1963. The war was ended by a ceasefire in 1967, though unrest continued for decades after. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fort Bullen | | 19th | 4 January 1832 | | The Treaty of Fort Bullen was signed on 4 January 1832 by representatives of the British Empire and the Kingdom of Niumi (in present-day The Gambia). The treaty brought an end to the Barra War, also known as the Anglo-Niumi War, which had broken out in 1831 after British troops encroached on Niumi territory to cut off French trade competition. When significant British support arrived from Sierra Leone, the Niumi king indicated he was willing to open negotiations and a treaty was drawn up and then signed at Fort Bullen. The treaty’s precise terms are unknown. | Africa |
| Bafut Wars | Mankon-Zintgraff Wars | 19th, 20th | 1891 | 1907 | The Bafut Wars, also known as the Mankon-Zintgraff Wars, were a series of conflicts from 1891-1907 between the troops of the Fon of Bafut (the ruler of the Kingdom of Bafut in present-day Cameroon) and German colonial forces, which were supported by troops of rival fandoms. Tensions were rising in the region around the turn of the century, as the Germans demanded ivory from Bafut and the Bafut people resisted the German encroachment on their region. Nearly two decades of conflict ended with the defeat of the Fon, and his kingdom was made part of the German protectorate of Kamerun. | Africa |
| Mahdist War | Anglo–Sudan War | 19th | 1881 | 1899 | The Mahdist War, also known as the Anglo-Sudan War, was a conflict between the Mahdist Sudanese and colonial Egyptian forces, which were later joined by British troops. Since 1819, Sudan had been governed by an Egyptian administration that was unpopular among the Sudanese not least because of harsh taxation and the abolition of the slave trade. An uprising against the foreign rulers by Mahdists began in 1881, and the war endured for nearly two decades. It ended in 1899 with the establishment nominally joint-rule state of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which gave Britain de facto control over Sudan. | Africa |
| Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 10 July 1999 | | The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was a treaty signed on 10 July 1999 by Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Signed in Lusaka, Zambia, it was intended to end the Second Congo War. Under its terms, military operations would cease, prisoners of war would be released, and a Joint Military Commission would identify and disarm militias in the Congo, especially those linked to the 1994 Rwandan genocide. In the following months, however, all parties accused the others of breaking the agreement’s terms and fighting continued for several years. | Africa |
| Soninke-Marabout War | | 19th | 1850 | April 1856 | The Soninke-Marabout War was a mid-19th century civil war between the Soninke (ruling class of the Kingdom of Kombo in The Gambia) and Marabouts, a Muslim faction not represented in Kombo’s governance. By 1850, Marabout villages in Kombo had formed a confederacy to contest Soninke authority. Demonstrations began, which led to fully-fledged fighting by 1851. Parts of Kombo had been ceded by the Soninke to the British Empire since 1816 and the British intervened twice in the war, both times storming the Marabout town of Sabbajee. A peace treaty was drawn up in 1956 and mediated by the British. | Africa |
| Sun City Agreement | | 21st | 2 April 2003 | | The Sun City Agreement was an accord signed on 2 April 2003 by Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The intention was to bring an end to the Second Congo War, establish a unified, multi-party government and a timeline for democratic elections in the DRC. A partial agreement was reached by the government, a Uganda-backed armed opposition group and the majority of unarmed opposition groups. However, a Rwanda-backed armed movement and several unarmed groups refused to sign. Parties were not able to establish a new constitution and government and the agreement did not stop the conflict. | Africa |
| Mauretanio-Sahraoui Agreement | Algiers Agreement | 20th | 10 August 1979 | | The Mauretanio-Sahraoui Agreement, also known as the Algiers Agreement, was an accord signed by Mauritania and the Polisario guerrilla movement in 1979. The Polisario Front had been in conflict since 1976 with Mauritania and Morocco, for the independence of the southern half of Western Sahara. The war was a major drain on Mauritanian finances. Under the agreement’s terms, Mauritania renounced all claims to the mineral-rich territory. Morocco disputed Mauritania’s right to withdraw from its part of the former Spanish colony and continued the war to defend its part of Western Sahara. | Africa |
| Military Treaty of 26 July 1895 | | 19th | 26 July 1895 | | The Military Treaty of 26 July 1895, also known as the Treaty Concerning National Service of the Rehoboth Basters, was the second treaty signed by the Baster community in present-day Namibia and the German Empire. After the German annexation of South West Africa, this new treaty bound the Basters to do military service. Subsequently, the Basters fought alongside the German colonial forces in quelling the uprisings of the Herero, Nama, and Bondelswart people. They also participated in the German colonial war and genocide against the Herero and Nama people. | Africa |
| Treaty of Protection and Friendship | | 19th | 15 September 1855 | | The Treaty of Protection and Friendship, also known as the German-Baster Friendship and Protection Treaty, was signed on 15 September 1885 by the first leader of the Baster community, Hermanus van Wyk, and the German Empire during the annexation of South West Africa. The treaty was the first between any native peoples in South West Africa and the German authorities. Under the treaty, van Wyk’s independent executive powers were significantly curtailed but he succeeded in negotiating some autonomy for Rehoboth, the heart of the Baster community in present-day Namibia. | Africa |
| Évian Accords | | 20th | | 18 March 1962 | The Évian Accords were signed in Évian-les-Bains, France, by the French Republic and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic. These treaties sought to end the Algerian War. France had pursued an imperial venture in Algeria for over a century, exploiting its resources and imposing French culture and institutions. The accords intended to provide for Algeria's independence, recognise the FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) as the legitimate representative of the Algerian people, and address issues relating to property, citizenship, and minority rights. | Africa |
| Madrid Accords | Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara | 20th | | 14 November 1975 | The Madrid Accords, also known as the Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara, aimed to end the Spanish colonisation of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony in North Africa. The Kingdom of Morocco, which had imperial aspirations over the territory, claimed sovereignty over Western Sahara, leading to conflict with the indigenous Polisario Front who sought self-determination for the Sahrawi people. The Madrid Accords recognised Morocco's claim but promised a referendum on self-determination. However, the referendum has yet to occur, and the conflict remains unresolved. | Africa |
| First Sahrawi Intifada | | 20th, 21st | September 1999 | January 2004 | The First Sahrawi Intifada was characterised by large demonstrations. These took place after the death of King Hassan II of Morocco and during the first weeks of the reign of King Mohammed VI who promised democracy and reform. The uprising was initially student led but grew to include miners and others. The intifada resulted in the 2003 United Nations initiative known as the Baker Plan and, in January 2004, King Mohammed VI released twelve Sahrawi activists. However, peace negotiations had reached a standstill by 2005. This led to The Second Antifada of that year. | Africa |
| Second Sahrawi Intifada | Independence Intifada | 21st | 21 May 2005 | Date contested | The Second Sahrawi Intifada, also known as Independence Intifada, was an uprising that began in response to the decision of the Moroccan authorities to transfer a political prisoner to southern Morocco where it would be difficult for his Sahrawi family to visit him. Demonstrations started in al-‘Ayun, but quickly spread to other places in Western Sahara and southern Morocco. Many Sahrawi’s were arrested, and protesters beaten, causing international outcry. Although the Western Sahara conflict is ongoing, the intensity of this particular conflict started waning in 2008. | Africa |
| Western Sahara Partition Agreement | Convention Concerning the State Frontier Line | 19th, 20th | | 14 April 1976 | The Western Sahara Partition Agreement, also known as the Convention Concerning the State Frontier Line, was a treaty signed in 1976 between the Kingdom of Morocco and Islamic Republic of Mauritania which divided Western Sahara between the two countries following Spain relinquishing its colonial rule. This agreement demarcated the boundaries between the two countries. However, the conflict in western Sahara officially continued until 1991, when a ceasefire was signed. The issue of Western Sahara's status remains unresolved. | Africa |
| Hut Tax War | Temne-Mende War | 19th, 20th | 1898 | 9 March 1989 | The Hut Tax War, also known as the Temne-Mende War, was a conflict that occurred in Sierra Leone. The British colonial government introduced a ten shilling tax on huts. This was seen as an economic burden on the indigenous population and led to a rebellion by the Temne and Mende ethnic groups, who were opposed to British colonial rule. The British colonial forces defeated the rebels after several months of fighting resulting in thousands of deaths through guerrilla warfare and scorched earth tactics. The rebel’s rulers, such as Bai Bureh, were executed or deported. | Africa |
| Nova Scotian Rebellion | | 19th | 1800 | 1800 | The Nova Scotian Rebellion that took place in 1800 in Sierra Leone is under documented. Nova Scotians had come to Sierra Leone in 1787 and were one of the crucial groups of settlers who founded the city now known as Freetown. The Sierra Leone Company controlled resources in the colony and its decision to impose a land tax ultimately led to the rebellion of the Nova Scotian settlers in 1800. The settlers were defeated by British Naval forces and so the rebellion failed. | Africa |
| Revolt of the Pende | | 20th | Date contested | September 1931 | The Revolt of the Pende is interpreted as one of the largest uprisings in the Congo during Belgian colonial rule before the struggle for independence. Many members of the Pende ethnic group were employed by a Lever Brothers - ancestor of present-day Unilever - subsidiary where they worked in unethical conditions. As a result of the Pende’s dissatisfaction, a Belgian official was killed when visiting to collect taxes. This was followed by a punitive expedition by the Belgians and the killing of at least 400 Pende tribe members who were led by Matemu-a-Kenenia in the Kwilu region. | Africa |
| Batetela Rebellion | | 19th | 1895 | Date contested | The Batetela Rebellion refers to an uprising of the Tetela ethnic group in the Congo Free State, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, against Belgian colonial rule. In Luluabourg, Batelela soldiers, angry at being paid late, found out that the authorities had executed their leader. They took control of the camp and killed Captain Peltzer. Soon, the mutiny had evolved into a full-scale revolt and spread over the Lomami region. Though the rebellion was eventually suppressed, the last rebels were only captured in 1908. Some accounts do note that the region was ‘pacified’ by 1902. | Africa |
| Kitawalist Uprising | Masisi-Lubutu Revolt | 20th | 16 February 1944 | 1944 | The Kitawalist Uprising, also known as the Masisi-Lubutu Revolt, was a rebellion that started in the Kivu region of the Belgian Congo, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. The leader of the revolt was Bushiri Lungunda whose followers believed that he was Yesu Mukumbozi or Jesus the Redeemer. Their arrest of a colonial agent, and his subsequent humiliation, led to a violent and large-scale revolt against the Belgian colonists. Acts of atrocity were committed by Bushiri and his followers as well as the Belgian colonists who, after only a month or so of fighting, crushed the rebellion. | Africa |
| Ndirfi Revolt | Ndirfi Mutiny | 19th, 20th | 14 February 1897 | August 1900 | The Ndirfi Revolt, also known as the Ndirfi Mutiny, took place in the north-east of the Congo Free State, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, and started after 2,500 troops were forced to march for 150 days with few provisions and little rest by Belgian colonial agents. Since the revolt involved an army of thousands of rebels, it was hard for the colonial powers to suppress. After three years though, in August of 1900, approximately 2,000 Baoni, as the Ndirfi rebels were called, surrendered themselves to German East African authorities. | Africa |
| Luanda Agreement | | 21st | 2002 | | The Luanda Agreement established a ceasefire between the Republic of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) after many years of armed conflict. This agreement altered the terms of the Lusaka Agreement which initially aimed to end the Second Congo War. It was ruled by the International Court of Justice that Uganda was the occupying power in this instance and it is generally agreed that Uganda had been plundering the DRC for its valuable minerals. The Luanda Agreement has not been adhered to by either country involved. | Africa |
| Pretoria Accord | | 21st | July 2002 | | The Pretoria Accord was a peace agreement signed in South Africa by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the Republic of Rwanda which aimed at ending the Second Congo War. The accord provided for the withdrawal of 20,000 Rwandan troops from the DRC and the disarmament of Rwandan and Congolese rebel groups. It established a mechanism for the repatriation of Rwandan refugees and the management of natural resources in the eastern DRC. The agreement was seen as a significant step towards ending the conflict although since there have been challenges to its implementation. | Africa |
| Anglo-Aro War | | 20th | November 1901 | March 1902 | The Anglo-Aro War was fought between the Aro Confederacy and the British Empire in a region that is part of present-day Nigeria. The Aro Confederacy resisted the continuing colonisation of Eastern Nigeria by the British Empire, as they had economic and cultural dominance over this area. In the spring of 1902, at the battle of Bende, the Aro were defeated. Though this formally marked the end of the war, Aro resistance continued and therefore challenges to British colonisation of the area remained. | Africa |
| Fulani War | Fulani Jihad | 19th | 21 February 1804 | 1808 | The Fulani War, also known as the Fulani Jihad, was a religious war led by Usman Dan Fodio that took place in the region covering present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. Usman Dan Fodio led an army of Fulani, a largely pastoral populace, to capture the Hausa Kingdom, ruled by Sarkin Gobir Yunfa. Many joined the jihad, declaring that Usman Dan Fodio was Amir al-Mu’minin. The Fulani won the war and captured the Hausa Kingdom. This resulted in the founding of the Sokoto Caliphate which enjoyed political power in the region until the British conquest and exists to this day as a spiritual authority. | Africa |
| Bussa Rebellion | Sabukki Revolt | 20th | June 1915 | June 1915 | The Bussa Rebellion, also known as the Sabukki Revolt, occurred in the small town of Bussa which was then part of Colonial Nigeria ruled by the British Empire. After the local Emir, Kitoro Gani, was replaced by a Native Administration, Prince Sabukki led an insurrection resulting in half of the new administration being killed by rebels. The remaining members fled, leaving the rebels in control of Bussa. Although the British were distracted at the time by their ongoing war with the Germans, they curbed the rebellion before the end of that month. | Africa |
| Ekumeku War | | 19th, 20th | 1898 | 1911 | The Ekumeku War was fought between the British Empire and the Anioma people - referred to as Ekumeku - in the Asaba hinterland of present-day Nigeria. The Ekumeku had the intention of driving out the Royal Niger Company and their trading posts. The war was characterised by militancy and over ten years of struggle. Supporters of British rule had their houses burnt and were sometimes killed. The Ekumeku also defied the Native Court and missionaries. The war culminated in severe fighting in 1911, followed by a mass trial and the imprisonment and eventual defeat of the Ekumeku movement. | Africa |
| Kwale Uprising | Kwale Revolt | 20th | November 1914 | November 1914 | The Kwale Uprising, also known as the Kwale Revolt, broke out in the Warri province in present-day Nigeria in 1914. The indigenous population greatly resented clerks and government messengers from the British authorities due to the British manipulation of the Native Court system. As the uprising grew, the Kwales were joined by Urhobo and Ika-Ibo in the murder of court clerks and other outsiders - such as Yoruba and Hausa - who commonly worked as spies for the colonial administration. The rebels also destroyed British property. This went on for some weeks before the rebellion was quashed. | Africa |
| Iseyin-Okeiho Rising | Oke-Ogun Rebellion | 20th | October 1916 | November 1916 | The Iseyin-Okeiho Rising, also known as the Oke-Ogun Rebellion, was a revolt in Colonial Nigeria primarily caused by administrative changes introduced by the British that clashed with existing political and social systems. The population of the Okeiho and Oyo areas was particularly dissatisfied with this British centralising influence. The rebellion quickly grew and several government buildings were set on fire. In response, military operations were launched by the British and several leaders of the uprising were executed. The conflict was over by November 1916. | Africa |
| Igbo Women's War | Aba Women’s Riot | 20th | 23 November 1929 | January 1930 | The Igbo Women’s War, or the Aba Women’s Riot, started in southeastern Nigeria amidst the implementation of taxes overseen by a local British colonial administrator who had ordered that all women’s belongings needed to be counted, so they could be taxed. Women from six ethnic groups (Ibibio, Andoni, Ogoni, Bonny, Opobo and Igbo) mobilised by blockading roads, destroying telegraph polls, damaging banks, and attacking the Native Court. These attacks were essentially nonviolent, but colonial administrators acted mercilessly in opposition. Women were shot and villages burned. | Africa |
| Chadian–Libyan Conflict | | 20th | 29 January 1978 | 11 September 1987 | The Chadian-Libyan Conflict began with the Ibrahim Abatcha offensive against the Malloum government led by Libya and pro-Libyan Chadian factions. With the help of Libya, Chadian dissidents had already taken control of large parts of northern Chad. After this first offensive, France - Chad’s former coloniser - became involved at the request of Malloum. Libya was defeated in the last phase of the conflict, which is sometimes referred to as the Toyota War. Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, blamed US and French aggression for this defeat. | Africa |
| Shaba I | | 20th | 8 March 1977 | 26 May 1977 | Shaba I involved an invasion of Shaba, a province in Zaire which is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by rebels known as the Kantangan Gerdarmes. They invaded Shaba in March 1977, predominantly non-violently. France supported the leadership of Zaire and provided military support. Although the reason for the invasion remains unclear, many Cuban troops were present in Angola where the rebels had been stationed. Due to this, there was international concern about encroaching communism and Soviet expansionism. Mobutu, the leader of Zaire, was eventually triumphant. | Africa |
| Shaba II | | 20th | 11 May 1978 | June 1978 | Shaba II was a conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. More than 2,000 members of the FLNC (Front de Liberation Nationale du Congo) seized the city of Kolwezi. Mobutu, the leader of Zaire, appealed to France for assistance and, partly due to the European population working in Kolwezi, they agreed. After intervention from both Belgian and French governments, the FLNC was eventually defeated. However, many Zairian and European civilians lost their lives as a result of this struggle. | Africa |
| First Franco-Dahomean War | | 19th | 21 February 1890 | 4 October 1890 | The First Franco-Dahomean War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Dahomey and The French Third Republic, in present-day Benin. It started in Cotonou in the early weeks of 1890 when a force of mainly Senegalese and Gabonese soldiers were trained and led by French officers to capture this port city. This military force arrested senior Dahomey officials on 21 February 1890 which started the war. The war consisted of two main battles, one taking place on 4 March and the other on 4 April, which resulted in huge losses for the Dahomeans and were followed by peace negotiations. | Africa |
| Second Franco-Dahomean War | | 19th | 4 July 1892 | 15 January 1894 | The Second Franco-Dahomean War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Dahomey and The French Third Republic, in present-day Benin. The cause of the conflict was largely France’s colonial aspirations for the area. It was sparked by a Dahomean attack of a French ship in the Oueme valley. The Dahomean army was destroyed as a result of several battles that took place over the course of seven weeks and met its final end at the village of Diokoue, outside Cana. The French occupied the capital, Abomey, and hoisted their flag over the Royal Palaces. | Africa |
| The Accord | | 21st | 20 June 2015 | | The Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation in Mali Resulting from the Algiers Process, or simply “the Accord”, was a peace treaty written and signed with the intention of bringing peace to the Republic of Mali. It was signed by the Malian government as well as six armed rebel groups who had sustained fighting since the 2012 insurgency, known as the Platform and the Coordination of Azawad Movements. The agreement was mediated by Algeria and the UN. Since it was signed, the process that it sought to implement - one based on decentralisation and reconciliation - has been difficult to apply. | Africa |
| Reduction of Lagos | Bombardment of Lagos | 19th | 1851 | 1852 | The Reduction of Lagos, also known as the Bombardment of Lagos, was a conflict taking place in Lagos, in present-day Nigeria. The first attack was made by British naval forces under the pretext of ending the Atlantic Slave trade of which Lagos was the centre. It is more likely that their motivations were commercial. This first attack resulted in a British defeat. However, a second attack a month later led to the defeat of Kosoko, the Oba (King) of Lagos. Britain then installed Oba Akitoye who signed a treaty on 1 January 1852 agreeing to abolish the slave trade in Lagos. | Africa |
| Batepá Massacre | | 20th | 3 February 1953 | 3 February 1953 | The Batepá Massacre took place in São Tomé, the capital city of São Tomé and Príncipe, a colony of the Portuguese Empire. It was caused by rumours that, due to the labour shortages on the island, workers from Cape Verde would be brought in and given the land of the native people. These led to large protests which Governor Gorgulho took as a sign of a communist uprising. He urged all white colonists to take up arms. What followed was the torture, detention, and killing of hundreds of the native creoles. The aftermath marked the rise of the independence movement in Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe. | Africa |
| Ikiza | Ubwicanyi | 20th | April 1972 | August 1972 | The Ikiza, also known as the Ubwicanyi, was a genocide that took place in the small nation of Burundi. The genocide was brought about because of differences between the Hutu, the pastoral majority, and the Tutsi elite. Hutus led an insurrection in April 1972 and counter attacks followed. The death toll is still unclear but is likely more than 200,000, both Hutu and Tutsi and from all parts of society. The killings continued until August 1972. | Africa |
| 1993 Killings in Burundi | October 1993 Massacres | 20th | 21 October 1993 | December 1993 | The 1993 Killings in Burundi, also known as the October 1993 Massacres, happened in Burundi after the democratic elections of June of the same year. In October, Tutsi rebels attempted a coup to dismantle the presidency of the newly elected Hutu president Ndadaye. This failed, although the president was murdered. What followed was the mass killing of Tutsis, largely by Hutu civilians. Hutus were also killed by soldiers and Tutsi civilians. The death toll is unknown but probably between 100,000 and 500,000 in just a few months. | Africa |
| Spanish Conquest of Tripoli | | 16th | 25 July 1510 | 25 July 1510 | The Spanish Conquest of Tripoli was led by Pedro Navarro with the aim of warning Muslims that the Christians could advance into North Africa and also in order to set up a shipping route via Sicily. Navarro’s fleet took off from Sicily and, after stopping in Malta, arrived in Tripoli on 24 July 1510. The army attacked the following day, killing over 3,000 inhabitants. Tripoli surrendered three hours into the fight and remained under the control of the Spanish until it was ceded to the Knights of the Order of St John of Jerusalem in 1530. | Africa |
| Mokrani Revolt | Unfaq urrumi (“French war”) | 19th | 16 March 1871 | 20 January 1872 | The Mokrani Revolt, also known as the Unfaq urrumi (“French war”),was the largest insurrection since the start of the French conquest of Algeria. Sheikh Mohamed El-Mokrani, having raised an army of 10,000, was joined by Sheikh Aheddad, a spiritual chief. 250 tribes joined the revolt, resulting in tens of thousands of fighters. The revolt happened when the Paris Commune, a French revolutionary government, had seized power in Paris. When the Commune was suppressed, the French government violently repressed the revolt in Algeria. Sheikh El-Mokrani was killed in May 1871. | Africa |
| Desmichels Treaty | | 19th | 26 February 1834 | | The Desmichels Treaty was signed in 1834, two years after Abd al-Qadir had taken over as the leader of the resistance to the French occupation of Algeria. The treaty, signed by General Louis-Alexis Desmichels of France and Abd al-Qadir, gave the latter control over the entirety of the province of Oran. In order to unite his territory, Abd al-Qadir made himself chief of all tribes within the Chelif and went on to occupy Miliana and Medea. His military successes and powers of negotiation allowed him to rally much support from Algerians who abhorred the French and their use of violence. | Africa |
| 1977 Seychelles Coup D'État | | 20th | 4 June 1977 | 5 June 1977 | The 1977 Seychelles Coup D'État was a rebellion against the government of President Mancham. 200 insurgents took over the main island of Mahé and were fired upon by police, during which two men were killed. The insurgents then arrested six British officers who had been advising the police since independence was granted the year prior and installed France-Albert René as president. The coup was aided by the Tanzanian government at the time. | Africa |
| Uganda–Tanzania War | 1979 Liberation War | 20th | 9 October 1978 | 3 June 1979 | The Uganda-Tanzania War, also known as the 1979 Liberation War, was a conflict in Uganda that led to the overthrow and exile of President Idi Amin of Uganda. The war began in early October of 1978 when the first Ugandan troops entered Tanzania and declared the annexation of territory north of the Kagera River. Nyerere, the President of Tanzania, and Idi Amin had a strained relationship due to Nyerere’s friendship with the former President of Uganda from whom Amin had seized power. The Tanzanians forced Uganda’s retreat and, after only seven months, Idi Amin from power. | Africa |
| Bouamama Uprising | Revolt of Sheikh Bouamama | 19th | 1881 | 1894 | The Bouamama Uprising, also known as the Revolt of Sheikh Bouamama, was led by Cheikh Bouamama in the southern region of Oran in Algeria. It was intended as an attack against French rule and occupation of Algeria, but failed due to fragmentation and disturbance between tribal groups. | Africa |
| 1981 Seychelles Coup d'État Attempt | Operation Angela | 20th | 25 November 1981 | 1981 | The 1981 Seychelles Coup d'État Attempt, also known as Operation Angela, was a failed endeavour by the South African government and military intelligence services to acquire influence over the Seychelles. ‘Mad’ Mike Hoare, an Irish soldier living in South Africa, and around 45 soldiers, arrived at Seychelles airport pretending to be tourists. Weapons were found in their luggage and a firefight ensued. The majority of the soldiers escaped on a hijacked plane, but six men were arrested and tried. South Africa reportedly paid a $3 million ransom for their lives. | Africa |
| Revolt of Abd al-Qadir | | 19th | 1833 | 1847 | The Revolt of Abd al-Qadir is considered to be one of the most significant acts of resistance during the French conquest of Algeria. Abd al-Qadir enlisted an army of 10,000 and, in 1833, he successfully invaded Tlemcen and signed the Desmichels treaty which ensured his power over Oran. Later, his victories over the French and the Treaty of Tafna gave Abd al-Qadir control of most of Algeria. However, due to a loss of support from Morocco, the rebellion eventually failed with the surrender of Abd al-Qadir in 1847. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tafna | | 19th | 25 May 1837 | | The Treaty of Tafna was signed by representatives of France and Algeria with the premise of ending the fighting between imperial French troops and the Algerian resistance force. The French, led by General Bugeaud, were certain that they would continue to encounter resistance in their conquest of Algeria and that negotiating with Abd al-Qadir, leading the Algerian resistance, would be more commercially beneficial than implementing a scorched earth policy. Abd al-Qadir’s territory, after the Tafna Treaty, extended outside of the Oran province and into central Algeria. | Africa |
| Diggers' Revolt in Griqualand West | Black Flag Revolt | 19th | 1875 | 1875 | The Diggers Revolt in Griqualand West, also known as the Black Flag Revolt, was a short-lived uprising in South Africa. White diamond miners, wanting to exclude non-whites from the diamond mining industry except in controlled labour roles, revolted against the newly proclaimed status of Griqualand West as a British colony. The revolt was a failure as much of the diggers work was being mechanised and individual miners were being forced out by large companies already. | Africa |
| Ga-Fante War | | 19th | 1811 | 1811 | The Ga-Fante War was a conflict that took place in 1811 and started when Osei Bonsu from the Ashanti Empire, covering present-day Ghana and parts of Ivory Coast and Togo, sent an army to defend Accra and Elmina against the Fante Confederacy. The latter received material and military support from the British. A battle was fought at Apam between the Fante and Ashanti which resulted in huge losses on both sides. During this war between Ashanti and the Fante, the British had been trying to abolish the slave trade. The war resulted in an inconclusive victory for the Ashanti. | Africa |
| Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War | Ashanti Invasion of the Gold Coast | 19th | 1814 | 1816 | The Ashanti-Akim-Akwapim War, also known as the Ashanti Invasion of the Gold Coast, was a series of conflicts with the intention of expanding the Ashanti Empire towards the coast. This war took place under Osei Bonsu and began in 1814 when he sent his army to defeat the Akyem and Akwapim army. He was successful and his eventual acquisition of the coast resulted in him being given the nickname, ‘Whale’. | Africa |
| Kusasi-Mamprusi Conflict in Bawku | Bawku Chieftaincy Conflict | 20th, 21st | Date contested | Ongoing | The Kusasi-Mamprusi Conflict in Bawku, also known as the Bawku Chieftaincy Conflict, was triggered by a dispute over chieftaincy in Bawku in Northern Ghana. The conflict is rooted in British colonial policies, especially those resulting from the Kusasi Conference of 1931 and the Mamprusi Conference of 1932. In 1983, an instance of mass violence led to 30 people being killed. Another period of violence occurred in 2000 - during a presidential election - and the situation repeated itself in 2007 and 2008. The conflict, and who is recognised as the chief of Bawku, remains unresolved. | Africa |
| Nawuri-Gonja Conflict | | 20th | 1991 | 1992 | The Nawuri-Gonja Conflict was a dispute that took place in Northern Ghana. It was rooted in the implementation of new constructs of allodial land rights by the British colonial administration, which challenged traditional rights. The taking up of arms, in 1991 and 1992, followed disputes after a political conference in 1930 at Yapei - aimed at organising the Gonja succession - which had been organised by the British. The colonial administration did not acknowledge the jurisdiction of the Nawuri and, even up to the 1990s, the Gonja refused to recognise the Nawuri chieftains. | Africa |
| Konkomba-Nanumba Conflict | Guinea Fowl War | 20th | 1994 | 2015 | The Konkomba-Nanumba Conflict, also known as the Guinea Fowl War, was a conflict which was sparked by a minor trade dispute between a Konkomba and a Nanumba man in Northern Ghana, arguably over the price of guinea fowl. The war resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, many more displaced persons and over 500 destroyed villages. The root of the conflict has been attributed to the British colonial administration’s failure to reconstruct citizenship and its inability to promote notions of ethnic equality. | Africa |
| Anglo-Zanzibar War | Bombardment of Zanzibar | 19th | 27 August 1896 | 27 August 1896 | The Anglo-Zanzibar War, also known as the Bombardment of Zanzibar, has been argued to be the shortest war on record. British warships bombarded the island, now part of Tanzania, and within 40 minutes hundreds of people had died. Zanzibar, a former colony of Oman, had declared itself independent in 1858 but had become a British protectorate in 1890. In 1896, pro-British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini died and Khalid bin Barghash seized control. Since he would be less favourable to British interests, the British quickly responded by starting this war. | Africa |
| Zanzibar Revolution | | 20th | 12 January 1964 | 12 January 1964 | The Zanzibar Revolution occurred in January 1964 on the island of Zanzibar, now part of Tanzania. Zanzibar had been conquered by Oman in 1698, but reclaimed independence in 1858 before becoming a protectorate of the British Empire in 1890. By 1964, Zanzibar was a constitutional monarchy. There was a class divide between the Arab inhabitants, who were the main landowners, and the largely Black African population. The violent and ultimately successful revolution was brought about by 800 poorly-armed, mainly African insurgents. It was led by John Okello. | Africa |
| First Matabele War | | 19th | October 1893 | January 1894 | The First Matabele War took place in Matabeleland and Mashonaland, parts of present-day Zimbabwe, and was a conflict between the Ndebele (Matabele) Kingdom and the British South Africa Company. Cecil Rhodes, the premier of South Africa at that time, had set his sights on Matabeleland. After an attack on Ndebele cattle by Mashona thieves, Ndebele reacted with a massacre of 400 people. This was used as a reason for Rhodes to attack the Ndebele Kingdom, ruled by King Lobengula. The Ndebele, despite having more troops, lost the war due to the nature of the British weaponry. | Africa |
| First Sekhukhune War | | 19th | 16 May 1876 | 16 February 1877 | The First Sekhukhune War was a conflict that took place in what is now South Africa between the Marota people, and the South African Republic led by President Thomas François Burgers. Burgers declared war on Sekhukhune, the king of the Marota, but suffered a humiliating defeat which lost him his position as president. The war was officially ended by the signing of a treaty in 1877 in which Sekhuhune agreed upon the boundaries of his territory. | Africa |
| Second Sekhukhune War | | 19th | 1878 | 1879 | The Second Sekhukhune War was a conflict that took place in what is now South Africa after the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. This was a conflict between the Marota people, led by King Sekhukhune, and the British. Sekhukhune was looking to drive out the Europeans, as he believed that his Kingdom fell outside the jurisdiction of Pretoria. After a series of brutal battles, the British finally won the war against Sekhukhune. The King was captured and imprisoned in Pretoria until 1881 and later murdered in Manoge in 1882. | Africa |
| Anglo-Zulu War | | 19th | 11 January 1879 | 4 July 1879 | The Anglo-Zulu War was a conflict between the Zulus and the British that took place in South Africa. Following the annexation of Transvaal in 1877 and increased unease between the Zulus, the Boers and the British, King Cetshwayo - the leader of the Zulus - amassed an army of between 40,000 and 60,000 men. In response, British troops invaded and lost at Isandhlwana. However, after a decisive victory at Ulundi on 4 July 1879, Zululand was won by the British. | Africa |
| First Kongo-Portuguese War | | 17th | 1622 | 1622 | The First Kongo-Portuguese War started when a Portuguese army, bolstered by a high number of native warriors from Angola, moved against the Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese-Angola army attacked Mbumbi in the Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese-Angola army won this battle and took many war prisoners. According to records, the Imbangala mercenaries, who were part of the Portuguese-Angola army, cannibalised many of the war prisoners. The outcome of this battle led the Kingdom of Kongo to declare war on Portuguese Angola and expel the Portuguese from their territories. | Africa |
| Bakassi Conflict | | 20th, 21st | Date contested | Ongoing | The Bakassi conflict is a conflict in Cameroon between separatists and the government. The conflict follows from the independence of Nigeria and Cameroon in 1960 and the position of British Cameroons. Half of British Cameroons voted to be part of Nigeria and the other part of Cameroon. However, the borders were not clearly demarcated, and the Bakassi Peninsula became the site of major dispute. Violence in the area started in the 1980s with a clash between coast guards and continues to this day. | Africa |
| 1913 Anglo-German Treaty | | 20th | 11 March 1913 | | The 1913 Anglo-German Treaty was signed in London by Britain and Germany, as part of which the British ceded the Bakassi peninsula to Germany. The treaty marked the boundary from Yola to the sea and maintained Bakassi in Cameroon. The agreement was not implemented, which had consequences after the independence of Cameroon and Nigeria in 1960 and led to the Bakassi conflict. | Africa |
| Accord of al-Rajima | | 20th | 25 October 1920 | | The Accord of al-Rajima was a treaty following the Treaty of Acroma and the Senussi Campaign in which Italian sovereignty was recognised by the Senussi and its leader Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi. The latter was acknowledged as the Emiro Senusso and was allowed autonomous administrative control over the interior (present-day Libya) and an annual payment. The Senussi army was disbanded and disarmed. | Africa |
| First Treaty of Lausanne | Treaty of Ouchy | 20th | 18 October 1912 | | The First Treaty of Lausanne, also known as the Treaty of Ouchy, was signed after the Italo-Turkish War which took place in Libya. As part of this treaty, Turkey conceded its control over Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy. It has also been suggested that it gave autonomy to the inhabitants of Libya, the Senussi, and left them to defend themselves against the Italians. | Africa |
| Accord of Bu Mariam | | 20th | 7 November 1921 | | The Accord of Bu Mariam was a treaty signed in Libya which recognised that there were two conflicting sovereignties in Cyrenaica, the Italians and the Senussi. Senussi armed forces were to be disbanded and there were to be four mixed camps of Italian and Senussi soldiers. This treaty added agreements to those already documented in the Treaty of Acroma and the Accord of al-Rajima, all written after the Italo-Turkish War. | Africa |
| Angolan Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 11 November 1975 | 4 April 2002 | The Angolan Civil War was a conflict that followed the Angolan War of Independence. The Alvor Agreement, which granted Angola independence, established a transitional government, which soon fell apart. There was a power struggle mostly between two opposing political parties: The MPLA and UNITA. The Civil War was influenced by various international agendas, like that of the Soviet Union, the United States of America and Cuba. After a period of peace between 1988 and 1992, the war started again before finally coming to its end in 2002 with the death of the leader of UNITA. | Africa |
| Cabinda War | | 20th, 21st | 8 November 1975 | Ongoing | The Cabinda War is an ongoing conflict in a province of Angola which is separated from the rest of the country by a narrow strip of land that is part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The war is being fought by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda with the aim of gaining independence from Angola. The conflict in Cabinda ran alongside the Angolan Civil War until its resolution in 2002. Since then, fighting in Cabinda has continued despite a peace treaty assuring Cabinda’s status as part of Angola. | Africa |
| Treaty of Simulambuco | | 19th | 1885 | | The Treaty of Simulambuco was a peace treaty signed by the Portuguese Empire and the leaders of the N’Goyo Kingdom in south Cabinda (covering parts of present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of Angola). Under the terms of this treaty, the Ngoyo became a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown. The treaty has become a point of contention between Cabinda and Angola in Cabinda’s separatist struggle, as it marked Cabinda as a separate entity to Angola. | Africa |
| Caprivi Conflict | Caprivi Rebellion | 20th | 1994 | 1999 | The Caprivi Conflict, also known as the Caprivi Rebellion, was a conflict between the Caprivi Liberation Army and the Namibian Government. The Caprivi Liberation Army was formed by the Lozi, the majority population of the Caprivi Strip, who do not identify with the Namibian population. In August 1999, the separatist Caprivi Liberation Army attacked a military base and a police station. The Namibian government responded with violence and repression, forcing many of the rebels to seek refuge in Botswana. | Africa |
| Bondelswarts Rebellion | Bondelswarts Affair | 20th | May 1922 | June 1922 | The Bondelswarts Rebellion, also known as the Bondelswarts Affair, was a conflict between the indigenous Bondelswarts and the German colonial administration in what is now Southern Namibia. The Bondelswarts had various reasons to resent the German colonial administration and were experiencing particular hardship during a drought from 1918-1922. Tensions rose even further due to German legislation, including a tax on dogs. Following their uprising, the Bondelswarts were repressed and bombed into submission by the Germans, resulting in their surrender. | Africa |
| Ovambo Uprising | | 20th | 18 December 1914 | 06 February 1917 | The Ovambo Uprising was a revolt led by Mandume ya Ndemufayo, King of the Oukwanyama (present-day Angola and Namibia),against Portuguese colonial rule. In 1915, the year of a terrible famine, a Portuguese army attempted to colonise Oukwanyama during the Battle of Omongwa. This battle lasted three days after which Mandume retreated to German Southwest Africa from where he launched various attacks on the Portuguese. He was eventually killed in 1917, which ended this period of Ovambo resistance. | Africa |
| Rehoboth Uprising | | 20th | 1924 | 1925 | The Rehoboth Uprising was a conflict between the Rehoboth Baster community and the South African Administration in Southwest Africa, a former German colony. The Rehoboth Baster community was made up of the children of white colonists and indigenous women. On 10 December 1924, the South African Administration in Southwest Africa suspended the powers of the Council of Basters and transferred them to the white magistrate. This led to the revolt of the Basters who were however quickly rounded up by the administration with the help of airplanes. The revolt was quashed with no loss of life. | Africa |
| Treaty of Protection and Friendship | | 19th | 15 September 1885 | | The Treaty of Protection and Friendship was signed by representatives of the Basters of Rehoboth and the German Empire in 1885. This treaty aimed at protecting the Rehoboth Basters, recognising their rights and freedom, and granting them a remarkable amount of autonomy for the time. In return, the Rehoboth Basters would aid the German colonists in crushing revolts from the Hereros and the Namas, two ethnic groups inhabiting parts of Southern Africa. | Africa |
| Fashoda Incident | Fashoda Crisis | 19th | 10 July 1898 | 13 October 1898 | The Fashoda Incident, also known as the Fashoda Crisis, was a conflict between the French and the British in East Africa. The two forces met in Fashoda in South Sudan on the Upper Nile and both insisted on their respective rights to the territory, and that of Egypt. The contact in Fashoda was peaceful as both sides awaited word from their commanders in Europe. In Europe tensions were high and there was fear of a war breaking out. Due to the strength of the British naval forces, the French finally withdrew after six months of hostility. | Africa |
| Treaty on Walvis Bay | | 20th | 28 February 1994 | | The Treaty on Walvis Bay was an agreement signed by representatives of the Republic of South Africa and the Republic of Namibia which allowed for the reintegration of Walvis Bay into the Republic of Namibia after it became independent in 1990. The former British colony of Walvis Bay, which had been subsumed into Southwest Africa, had held strategic significance for the Republic of South Africa during the South African border war of 1966-1989. | Africa |
| Ethiopian Civil War | | 20th | 12 September 1974 | 28 May 1991 | The Ethiopian Civil War was a conflict that had its foundations in a dispute over policy toward Eritrea and was fought between the Ethiopian military junta known as the Derg, who had just ousted Haile Selassie in a coup, and Ethiopian-Eritrean anti-government rebels. After 13 years of rule by the Derg, in 1987 the Derg dissolved itself establishing the Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. However, in 1991, the socialist government was overthrown by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF),marking the end of socialist rule in Ethiopia. | Africa |
| Ethiopian–Adal War | Futuḥ al-Ḥabash | 16th | 9 March 1529 | 21 February 1543 | The Ethiopian-Adal War, also known as Futuḥ al-Ḥabash (Arabic: conquest of Abyssinia),was a conflict fought between the Adal Sultanate, a medieval Sunni Muslim Empire, and the Christian Ethiopian Empire. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, a military leader of the Adal Sultanate, was victorious over multiple Ethiopian emperors and Christian Abyssinia, present-day Ethiopia, was nearly completely conquered. The tides turned when the Abyssinians received aid from the Portuguese Empire, which eventually led to a return to the status quo ante bellum. | Africa |
| Eritrean–Ethiopian War | Badme War | 20th, 21st | 06 May 1998 | 18 June 2000 | The Eritrean–Ethiopian War, also known as the Badme War, was a conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia that centered around a border dispute and was further aggravated by matters of trade and currency. A clash between Ethiopian and Eritrean armies on the border started the war. In just two years, more than 140,000 soldiers had been killed and 750,000 Eritreans displaced. The war was halted by an agreement which established a security zone patrolled by the United Nations and a boundary commission. This commission awarded Badme, formerly part of Ethiopia, to Eritrea. | Africa |
| Algiers Agreement (2000) | | 21st | 12 December 2000 | | The Algiers Agreement (2000) was a peace treaty that sought to end the Eritrean-Ethiopian War and was signed in Algiers by representatives of Eritrea and Ethiopia. The treaty set out a process of arbitration for resolving the conflict between the two countries. It also established a security zone patrolled by the United Nations as well as a boundary commission which drew out an official marked boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia. The governments of Eritrea and Ethiopia also reaffirmed the Agreement on Cessation of Hostilities which had been signed earlier that year. | Africa |
| Eritrean War of Independence | | 20th | 01 September 1961 | 24 May 1991 | The Eritrean War of Independence was a conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Following Italian and then, briefly, British control over Eritrea, Ethiopia and its Emperor Haile Selassie demanded that Eritrea become part of Ethiopia. The British agreed with this under the condition that Eritrea would have autonomy. What followed was many years of violence, Eritrean Resistance and Ethiopian repression eventually culminating in Eritrean independence in 1991. | Africa |
| Ogaden War | Ethio-Somali War | 20th | 13 July 1977 | 23 March 1978 | The Ogaden War, also known as the Ethio-Somali War, was a conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia. The Ogaden had been subsumed by Ethiopia in the 19th century despite being mainly populated by nomadic Somali peoples. Ethiopian authorities mostly based their claims to the Ogaden upon a 1897 treaty with the British. After the Ethiopian revolution in 1974, claims to Ogaden were reopened by the Somalians, backed by Cuba and the Soviet Union. However, the Soviets and Cubans changed sides leading to a Somalian defeat. | Africa |
| Tigray War | | 21st | 3 November 2020 | 03 November 2022 | The Tigray War was a conflict in Northern Ethiopia, in the Tigray region, that was fought between the Ethiopian federal government and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF). Eritrean soldiers were also involved in the conflict. The war started in 2020 when a military base was attacked by the TPLF leading to a counterattack ordered by the Ethiopian prime minister. It has been speculated that 600,000 people have died in this war and many lost their homes and had to flee. This war has been characterised as one of the most violent of recent years. | Africa |
| Ethiopia-Tigray Agreement | | 21st | 2 November 2022 | | The Ethiopia-Tigray Permanent Cessation of Hostilities Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Pretoria by Ethiopia and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in order to peacefully resolve The Tigray War. The agreement was signed after the loss of many thousands of lives and population displacement. It followed outbursts of violence in August of 2022, leading to a slow and rocky start to the peace talks. The treaty is part of the 'Silencing the Guns in Africa' agenda of the African Union. | Africa |
| Anglo-French Convention of 1898 | Niger Convention | 19th | 14 June 1898 | | The Anglo-French Convention of 1898, also known as the Niger Convention, was an agreement signed by France and Britain that drew out borders between disputed areas of northern Nigeria. The agreement was drawn up and signed after the Fashoda Incident and could have prevented a war ensuing in Europe between the two colonial powers. | Africa |
| Bizerte Crisis | | 20th | 19 July 1961 | 23 July 1961 | The Bizerte Crisis was a conflict in Tunisia in 1961 resulting from Tunisia imposing a blockade on a French naval base in Bizerte with the hope of forcing its evacuation. This was unsuccessful as French soldiers broke the blockade and occupied Bizerte. France and Tunisia had signed an independence protocol in 1956 in which France conceded to Tunisia the principles of political autonomy. France had evacuated Tunisia in 1958 but their troops remained in Bizerte and in the southern territories which had been annexed in 1955. | Africa |
| Eighth Crusade | Tunis Crusade | 13th | 1270 | | The Eighth Crusade, also known as the Tunis Crusade, was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and the Hafsid Kingdom - covering parts of present-day Tunisia, Libya, and Algeria. Charles, the brother of Louis IX, had convinced Louis that the Emir of Tunis was ready for conversion to Christianity. His armada set off in the summer of 1270 and arrived on 18 July off Carthage. Due to poor drinking water, disease quickly spread throughout the crusader' army, killing Louis. Charles arrived in August and preserved the expedition, until the Emir paid him an indemnity. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tunis | | 13th | October 1270 | | The Treaty of Tunis was a peace treaty signed at the end of the Eighth Crusade. It set out agreements between the Kingdom of France and the Hafsid Kingdom. It included an indemnity payment to Charles of Anjou of 210,000 gold ounces which would guarantee the withdrawal of Charles' army. It was also agreed that, among other things, Christian traders in Hafsid territory would be safeguarded, and Muslim travellers would be under God’s protection in the lands of Christian Kings. | Africa |
| Tunisian–Algerian war of 1694 | | 17th | 24 June 1694 | Date Contested | The Tunisian–Algerian War of 1694 was a conflict between the Deylik of Algiers and the Regency of Tunis. In the summer of 1694, the Algerian army invaded Tunis and defeated Muhammad Bey. The resulting siege lasted three months and ended with the destruction of the capital. Muhammad ben Cheker, who had led the Algerian army, reigned over Tunis for six months after which the people of Tunis revolted - partly due to the high taxes imposed by the new leader - and Mohammed Bey was crowned king again in 1695. | Africa |
| Batna Uprising | | 20th | 1916 | 1917 | The Batna Uprising was an insurgency in Algeria against the French colonial administration. It has been debated as to whether the rebellion came about due to forced conscription or whether it was part of the 130 year long struggle of Algerians for independence. The rebellion resulted in dramatic attacks in November 1916 and the devastation of a number of farms belonging to Europeans. The rebels eventually decided to form a nominal Algerian republic. This was repressed by the French and 805 Algerians were arrested. | Africa |
| Tunisian-Venetian War | Venetian Bombardments of the Beylik of Tunis | 18th | June 1784 | 1792 | The Tunisian-Venetian War, also known as the Venetian Bombardments of the Beylik of Tunis, was a conflict between the Beylik of Tunis and the Republic of Venice. The war started after a Venetian ship, loaded with cargoes from Tunis, was destroyed and compensation claims from Tunis were dismissed. The Venetian navy under Angelo Emo bombed the capital and various cities of the Beylik of Tunis. Despite the resulting damage, this did not bring the Tunisian government to the negotiating table. Only years later, in 1792, a peace agreement was reached. | Africa |
| Mejba Revolt | | 19th | 1864 | 1865 | The Mejba Revolt was an insurrection against Muhammad III as-Sadiq, also known as Sadok Bey, who was the leader of the Beylik of Tunis. The reason for this rebellion was the doubling of an unpopular tax commonly known as the mejba. Due to the nature of the revolt, which included uprisings all over the country, Britain and France came close to intervening. The insurrection was brutally suppressed with the help of foreign creditors. | Africa |
| Mediterranean Campaign of 1798 | | 18th | June 1798 | December 1798 | The Mediterranean Campaign of 1798 was a conflict in Egypt between the French Republic and the British Empire. The French, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, sought to invade Egypt as a first step in capturing India from the British. Also, they sought to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. Bonaparte successfully captured Alexandria at the Battle of Alexandria on 2 July 1798. What followed were the Battle of the Pyramids and the ultimate French defeat at the Battle of the Nile which shifted the balance of power in the Mediterranean. | Africa |
| Revolt of Cairo | | 18th | 21 October 1798 | 22 October 1798 | The Revolt of Cairo was an uprising of the citizens of Cairo against the occupation of the city by the French who were led by Napoleon Bonaparte. When Napoleon taxed buildings and tried to remove graves in order to build his headquarters, the people of Cairo began to revolt in large numbers. Napoleon sent one of his generals into the streets to calm the insurgency, but the people killed him and captured the gates. The French quashed the uprising by firing cannons and killing a large number of Cairo citizens. | Africa |
| Sinai Insurgency | | 21st | 05 February 2011 | 25 January 2023 | The Sinai Insurgency was a conflict in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It began in 2011 when Islamist militants undertook attacks on Egyptian security forces in the context of the Egyptian Crisis. In 2015, these militants declared allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL or ISIS) and launched the largest attacks since the beginning of the conflict. The violence continues despite the Egyptian president announcing the end of terrorism in the area on 25 January 2023. | Africa |
| Anglophone Crisis | Cameroonian Civil War | 20th, 21st | 09 September 2017 | Ongoing | The Anglophone Crisis, also known as the Cameroonian Civil War, is an ongoing conflict in Cameroon between government forces and separatist groups seeking independence for the country’s Anglophone regions. The conflict resulted from peaceful protests in 2016-2017 by lawyers and teachers in the country’s two Anglophone regions against marginalisation by the Francophone central government. The violent crackdown of these protests led to an armed insurgence. Currently, the death toll of this conflict is at least 6,000 and 765,000 people have been displaced from their homes. | Africa |
| Central African Republic Civil War | | 21st | 10 December 2012 | Ongoing | The Central African Civil War is an ongoing insurgency in the Central African Republic (CAR) involving the Seleka coalition, the government, and Anti-balaka militias. Having first seized the capital, the Seleka fighters, mainly consisting of Muslims, staged a coup in March 2013, ousting President Bozizé. In response to the Seleka’s violence, the Christian Anti-balaka fighters carried out recriminations. There is also fighting between ex-Seleka factions. Over one million CAR citizens have been displaced and approximately 500,000 have been driven into neighbouring countries. | Africa |
| Boko Haram Insurgency | | 21st | 26 July 2009 | Ongoing | The Boko Haram Insurgency is a conflict between Boko Haram, an Islamic sectarian movement in Nigeria, and the Nigerian government since 2009. Boko Haram gained notoriety in July 2009 when they launched attacks on police posts and other government installations. The army was brought in to control the rebels, leaving more than 700 members dead and destroying the mosque that doubled as their headquarters. The group revived their attacks in 2010 and 2011 and in 2013 it became evident that Boko Haram had taken over rural government in north-eastern states. The threat of attack continues. | Africa |
| Lord's Resistance Army Insurgency | | 20th | 1987 | Ongoing | The Lord’s Resistance Army Insurgency is an ongoing conflict primarily between the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and the Ugandan government. It has spilled over to involve the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, and South Sudan. The LRA is a Christian militia that evokes Acholi nationalism on occasion. Following the overthrowing of Tito Okello, an ethnic Acholi, the LRA adopted guerrilla warfare tactics against the Ugandan government. The LRA has become known for its abduction of children and reliance on child soldiers. The LRA still operates at a low level. | Africa |
| Central African Republic Bush War | | 21st | 23 November 2004 | Date Contested | The Central African Republic Bush War was a civil conflict in the Central African Republic (CAR) between the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR),a coalition of rebel groups, and government forces. The conflict began shortly after the 2003 coup d’état and Bozize’s ascension to the presidency. Throughout 2004 and 2005 armed groups robbed, beat and raped civilians. The UFDR seized four towns in northern CAR in 2006. The end of the conflict is disputed, but a peace treaty was signed in 2008 in Gabon by the government and various rebel groups. | Africa |
| Libreville Global Peace Agreement | | 21st | 21 June 2008 | | The Libreville Global Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Libreville, Gabon, by the Central African Republic and the UFDR, APRD, and FDPC movements in order to end the Central African Republic Bush War. The Central African Republic Civil War was partly sparked by claims of the insurgent group Seleka that the government of Bozize was not acting in accordance with this treaty. | Africa |
| Mozambican Civil War | | 20th | 30 May 1977 | 4 October 1992 | The Mozambican Civil War was a conflict occurring in Mozambique which lasted for 15 years. Although the conflict is generally viewed as a civil war, because the Soviet Union backed the Mozambican government whilst the United States funded the rebels, it could also be defined as a proxy war. Both government forces and rebels deployed violent tactics and the war was only brought to an end in 1992 because of outside factors such as the fall of the Soviet Union. A peace treaty was signed in Italy which allowed UN peacekeepers to enter Mozambique. The first elections were held in 1994. | Africa |
| Satiru Uprising | Mahdist Revolt | 20th | 1906 | 1906 | The Satiru Uprising, also known as the Mahdist Revolt, was an insurgency that occurred in British northern Nigeria. In 1904, the Satiru village chief had declared himself The Mahdi and his son, Isa, the prophet. The chief was arrested and died in prison, but his son succeeded him as chief. Isa attacked a local village that refused to follow him and declared a jihad against the British in 1906. A first battle ensued in which the British lost. However, a second battle wiped out 2,000 Satiru inhabitants and the town was destroyed, never to be rebuilt again. | Africa |
| M23 Rebellion | | 21st | 04 April 2012 | 07 November 2013 | The M23 Rebellion was a conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 2012 and 2013 after the official end of the Second Congo War. Fighting broke out between the March 23 Movement, formed largely of ethnic Tutsi, and government forces in July 2012. M23 was an offshoot from the CNDP who had fought the government in DRC between 2006 and 2009. They were considered Rwandophones and claimed that Tutsi were discriminated against. The M23 Rebellion lasted 20 months until the M23 announced it would disarm and pursue political talks after being driven out of their last military bases. | Africa |
| Rwenzururu Uprising | | 20th | 1962 | 1982 | The Rwenzururu Uprising was a conflict in Uganda between the minority Bakonjo and Baamba ethnic groups and the Batooro who dominated the Kingdom of Tooro, a subnational kingdom in southwest Uganda. The Rwenzururu movement demanded a separate district for these two ethnic groups and, when refused by the Ugandan government, a wing of the movement decided to set up its own mini-state on the Congo border. The movement disbanded in 1982 following peaceful negotiations. | Africa |
| First Sudanese Civil War | Anyanya Rebellion | 20th | 18 August 1955 | 27 March 1972 | The First Sudanese Civil War, also known as the Anyanya Rebellion, was a conflict between the northern and southern parts of Sudan after gaining independence from British colonial rule in 1956. The British administration had administered the north and south of Sudan separately but, due to pressure from Northern elites who took power, the two areas were merged. Joseph Lagu created the insurgent force, the Anyanya, by consolidating rebel groups. The conflict continued until 1972 when the Addis Ababa Agreement was signed. | Africa |
| Addis Ababa Agreement | Addis Ababa Accord | 20th | 27 February 1972 | | The Addis Ababa Agreement, also known as the Addis Ababa Accord, was a peace treaty that ended the First Sudanese Civil War. It was signed on 27 February 1972 after only 12 days of deliberations and granted Southern Sudan semi-autonomy through a regional government. There were also constitutional provisions for religious and cultural protection that were applied. Following the accord, Sudan experienced more than a decade of peace but eventually collapsed because of its steady undermining by the regime of Jaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry. | Africa |
| 1966 Mengo Crisis | Buganda Crisis | 20th | 1966 | 1966 | The 1966 Mengo Crisis, also known as the Buganda Crisis, was a conflict between the Republic of Uganda and the Kingdom of Buganda, a Bantu kingdom within Uganda. Ugandan government soldiers stormed the palace at Mengo in Buganda and burnt ancient treasures and royal regalia. They also killed thousands and committed numerous other atrocities. The crisis unfolded partly because of Obote, the Prime Minister of Uganda, and his plan to erode the power of the Buganda Kingdom which was looking to gain a favoured status in Uganda. | Africa |
| 1972 Invasion of Uganda | | 20th | September 1972 | October 1972 | The 1972 Invasion of Uganda was an attempt to overthrow Idi Amin, President of Uganda, by insurgents who were supported by Tanzania. The insurgents were led by the former Ugandan President Obote and consisted of around 1,500 armed men. After some initial triumphs, such as the occupation of Kyotera, Kakuto and Kalisizo, the insurgents were defeated by Idi Amin’s army. The Ugandan military accused Britain of involvement in the insurgency along with Tanzania and detained a number of British citizens in Uganda at the time. | Africa |
| Arube Uprising | Arube Coup | 20th | 23 March 1974 | 24 March 1974 | The Arube Uprising, also known as the Arube Coup, was a conflict between Brigadier Charles Arube and President Idi Amin of Uganda. Arube attempted a coup d’etat with the help of Lugbara fighters. Arube had been training in the Soviet Union and returned to find out that he had been replaced as army chief of staff. As a Christian, he was already aggrieved by the massacres of Christians that were taking place in Uganda at the time. The coup failed and it was rumoured that Arube shot himself. Many Lugbara soldiers were murdered as a result of the conflict. | Africa |
| Entebbe Raid | Operation Thunderbolt | 20th | 3 July 1976 | 4 July 1976 | The Entebbe Raid, also known as Operation Thunderbolt, involved a counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission at Entebbe Airport in Uganda. An airplane was hijacked by members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations and the German Revolutionary Cells. The Ugandan government supported the hijackers. Having landed in Entebbe, the hijackers held 106 people hostage and demanded the release of 53 militants. The action failed and Israeli forces rescued the hostages. All hijackers were killed and a large part of Uganda's air force was destroyed. | Africa |
| Ugandan Bush War | Luwero War | 20th | 6 October 1980 | March 1986 | The Ugandan Bush War, also known as the Luwero War, was a conflict in the Republic of Uganda which led to Yoweri Museveni taking power in 1986. After President Idi Amin was overthrown during the Kagera War, there was a power vacuum in Uganda. The former President Milton Obote took power in 1981 following an election. Yoweri Museveni waged a guerrilla war in the bush intending to overthrow Obote. It has been estimated that between 100,000 and 500,000 deaths occurred because of the war and that most of these were a result of Obote’s government’s violence. | Africa |
| Second Sudanese Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 5 June 1983 | 9 January 2005 | The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict between the Sudanese central government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The conflict led to the creation of South Sudan as a separate nation in 2011. The imposition of Sharia Law by President Nimeiry in 1983 meant that the largely Christian South Sudanese population would be punished. As a response, the SPLA was formed. Though Nimeiry was ousted in a military coup in 1985, Sharia Law was not suspended, and the fighting continued until 2005. Approximately two million people are believed to have lost their lives in the conflict. | Africa |
| Comprehensive Peace Agreement | Naivasha Agreement | 21st | 9 January 2005 | | The Comprehensive Peace Agreement, also known as the Naivasha Agreement, was a peace treaty signed by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) and the Government of Sudan which ended the Second Sudanese Civil War, one of the longest and bloodiest on the African continent. The agreement set a timetable for a Southern Sudanese independence referendum. The SPLM withdrew from the government in October 2007, claiming that the central government had violated the terms of the peace treaty but, after an agreement in December, they rejoined. | Africa |
| Kasese Clashes | Kasese Massacre | 21st | 26 November 2016 | 27 November 2016 | The Kasese Clashes, also known as the Kasese Massacre, was a conflict in the capital of the subnational Kingdom of Rwenzururu in the Republic of Uganda in 2016. It took place over the course of a weekend in November. Rwenzururu guards allegedly attacked Ugandan police, killing 14 officers. The Ugandan police retaliated by raiding the regional king’s palace killing 103 people and arresting many more. Historically, the Rwenzururu Kingdom has been in a long-running separatist struggle with the state of Uganda. | Africa |
| Mount Elgon Insurgency | | 21st | 2005 | March 2008 | The Mount Elgon Insurgency was a conflict in Western Kenya between the Sabaot Land Defence Force (SLDF) and the Kenyan government. The roots of the conflict go back to the British colonial administration of Kenya which had displaced many Sabaots and given their land to new settlers. The SLDF engaged in human rights abuses as did the government when they launched Operation Okoa Maisha to crack down on the insurgency in March 2008. | Africa |
| Giriama Uprising | Kondo Ya Chembe | 20th | 1913 | 1914 | The Giriama Uprising, also known as Kondo Ya Chembe, was a conflict in Kenya between the Giriama and the British colonial administration. The Giriama had been largely left alone until 1913 when they were asked to provide labour for a water project for the city of Mombasa and refused. The British decided to take a census of the Giriama and collect taxes. By June, Makatilili, a female diviner, and Wanje, an elder, had crystalised their resistance plan. There was a riot in August 1913 which was broken up by police. The following year, the uprising started again but was easily quashed. | Africa |
| Revolt of the Women | | 20th | 1947 | 1948 | The Revolt of the Women was a conflict in the Murang’a district in Kenya in which a group of Kikuyu women resisted forced labour on communal conservation schemes. In April 1948, in the context of issues around soil erosion, female workers revolted against the British administration’s enforcement of labour and terracing. These women were arrested and given fines for delinquency. | Africa |
| Kolloa Affray | | 20th | 1950 | | The Kolloa Affray was a conflict in Kenya between the Pokot in the Baringo District and the British colonial administration. Lukas Pkech had been spreading the ideas of Dini ya Msambwa, a movement started by Elijah Masinde who claimed that he was the prophet of traditional religion and who preached the removal of all European presence. Pkech was arrested in 1949 but escaped and returned to Baringo. The conflict occurred when Pkech, along with 300 spear-carrying followers, met a group of armed police. Pkech was killed, along with 28 of his followers, and 4 policemen also died. | Africa |
| Harry Thuku Riot | Harry Thuku Disturbances | 20th | 1922 | | The Harry Thuku Riot, also known as Harry Thuku Disturbances, was a conflict between the British colonial administration and Harry Thuku’s supporters in Kenya. Harry Thuku was a founder of the East African Association (EAA) and an advocate for his fellow Kenyans against the racism of the British, especially the forced labour of women. Thuku was arrested in March 1922 and in response, the EAA called a general strike. Large demonstrations appeared outside the prison. The police opened fire and 21 of Thuku’s supporters were killed. | Africa |
| Anlu Uprising | Kom Women's Rebellion | 20th | May 1958 | January 1961 | The Anlu Uprising, also known as the Kom Women's Rebellion, was a conflict between the women of the former Kom Kingdom, present-day North-West Cameroon, and the British colonial administration. The conflict started because of dissatisfaction with the implementation of contour farming and the selling of lands to Nigerian Ibos. Anlu, the traditional practice of women gathering together, turned political when it demanded the shutting of schools, used roadblocks and defied both traditional and colonial authorities during this three-year uprising. | Africa |
| Casamance Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1982 | Ongoing | The Casamance Conflict is an ongoing war between separatists in the Casamance region of Senegal and the Senegalese government. The Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) is fighting for the independence of the region of Casamance which is ethnically and religiously distinct from the rest of Senegal. The population of Casamance mostly consists of Christians or animists as opposed to the majority Muslim Senegalese. Currently the MFDC benefits from the illegal smuggling of rosewood trees to China across the Gambian border. | Africa |
| Third Free State Basotho War | | 19th | July 1867 | 12 March 1868 | The Third Free State Basotho War was the last of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom, led by King Moshoeshoe I, and white settlers in what is known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. Boer forces invaded almost the totality of Moshoeshoe’s land except for the fortress of Thaba Bosiu. Due to his losses, Moshoeshoe asked for British assistance and on 12 March 1868 the British declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate. The Orange Free State was forced to surrender. | Africa |
| Morosi's Rebellion | Siege of Moorosi's Mountain | 19th | 1879 | 1879 | Morosi’s Rebellion, also known as the Siege of Moorosi's Mountain, was a conflict between the Cape colonial government and The BaPhuthi clan in present-day South Africa. Morosi was the chief of the BaPuthi clan in what is now southern Lesotho and had a reputation as a cattle thief. The Cape colonial government failed at an attempt to arrest Morosi’s son Doda but decided to return and try again. Morosi constructed walls at the base of a mountain and managed to keep the settlers at bay until they were bombarded with mortar. He was eventually arrested and approximately 70 rebels died. | Africa |
| Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995) | Second or Third Tuareg Rebellion | 20th | 1990 | 1995 | The Tuareg Rebellion (1990-1995),also known as the Second or Third Tuareg Rebellion, was an uprising of the Tuareg people against the governments of Niger and Mali motivated by continuous marginalisation. Following severe droughts between 1968 and 1985, large numbers of Tuareg nomads emigrated from Niger and Mali to Algeria and Libya, where they were exposed to insurgent ideas. However, many returned due to promises of help from the governments of Niger and Mali. The failure to fulfil these promises as well as the continued disempowerment of the Tuareg people, led to the insurgency. | Africa |
| Republic Niger Government and the ORA Agreement | | 20th | 15 April 1995 | | Republic Niger Government and the ORA Agreement was a comprehensive peace agreement intended to end the Tuareg Rebellion which had been ongoing since 1990. This included the creation of a committee who were tasked with the implementation of the accord. However, negotiations continued until a ceasefire accord was signed two years later. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Accords (1994) | | 20th | October 1994 | | The Ouagadougou Accords was a peace treaty signed by the Republic Niger Government and the Armed Resistance Organisation (ORA) intended to end the Tuareg Rebellion which had been ongoing since 1990. The Agreement Between the Republic Niger Government and the ORA was drawn up and signed the following year to reinforce the content of the Ouagadougou Accords. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Accords (2013) | | 20th | 18 June 2013 | | The Ouagadougou Accords (2013) was a peace treaty signed by the Government of the Republic of Mali and rebel groups, MNLA and HCUA, with the intention of ending the Tuareg insurgency. The agreement permitted the phased deployment of troops from the Malian government in the Kidal province which was the last rebel stronghold in Mali. It aimed to aid the disarmament of Tuareg rebels. The agreement was hailed by the international community as a step towards peace and democracy, but many Tuaregs accuse the Malian forces of ethnically motivated abuses. | Africa |
| Tamanrasset Agreement | | 20th | 6 January 1991 | | The Tamanrasset Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the government of Mali and rebel groups, MPA and FIAA, in order to end the Tuareg Rebellion. The agreement failed in its objective as the rebellion waged for another four years and various other treaties were signed. Similarly to the National Pact, the agreement committed the Malian state to decentralisation, the recognition of the north’s special status, the promotion of economic development in the north and the integration of some rebel combatants into the forces and administration. | Africa |
| National Pact | | 20th | 11 April 1992 | | The National Pact was a peace treaty signed by the government of Mali and the rebel group MFUA in order to end the Tuareg Rebellion. The agreement failed in its objective as the rebellion waged for another three years and other treaties were signed. Similarly to the Tamanrasset Agreement, the pact committed the Malian state to decentralisation, the recognition of the north’s special status, the promotion of economic development in the north and the integration of some rebel combatants into the forces and administration. | Africa |
| Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006–2009 | | 21st | 2006 | 2009 | The Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006–2009, was an uprising in The Republic of Mali that had many of the same characteristics as the Tuareg Rebellion only a decade before. It comprised two main phases with a period of respite in between. From May until July 2006, the Democratic Alliance for Change (ADC) attacked and then signed a peace treaty with the Malian government within three months. Less than a year later, an offshoot of ADC - called the ATNM - resumed the conflict which ended in losses and the leader of the group leaving the country. | Africa |
| Eswatini Protests | Eswatini Massacre | 21st | 20 June 2021 | Ongoing | The Eswatini Protests, also known as the Eswatini Massacre, began in the Kingdom of Eswatini, one of the world’s twelve remaining absolute monarchies. The protests started when a student, Thabani Nkomonye, was found dead with his eyes gouged out. This crime was subsequently confirmed to have happened at the hands of the police. Protests became pro-democracy in nature and 80 peaceful protesters were killed by the authorities. Demonstrations continued into 2022 and Thulani Maseko, an activist, was killed in his home in January 2023. Protests are still ongoing. | Africa |
| Guinea-Bissau War of Independence | Bissau-Guinean War of Independence | 20th | 23 January 1963 | 10 September 1974 | The Guinea-Bissau War of Independence, also known as the Bissau-Guinean War of Independence, was a conflict that brought about the end of Portuguese colonial rule in Guinea-Bissau. PAIGC, primarily led by Amilcar Lopes Cabral, and later assassinated by his own party, started their insurgency in January 1963 with the formation of adequate guerrilla units to take on the Portuguese army. The war lasted more than ten years until 1974, when Portugal formally withdrew from Guinea-Bissau. | Africa |
| Guinea-Bissau Civil War | | 20th | 7 June 1998 | 10 May 1999 | The Guinea-Bissau Civil War was a conflict that took place when João Bernardo Vieira dismissed Ansumane Mané, then the military chief of staff. Mané launched a revolt against Vieira’s government soon after, which evolved into a full-scale rebellion with interventions from France, Guinea, Nigeria and Senegal. Thousands died and fighting continued until Vieira was ousted in 1999. | Africa |
| 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état | | 21st | 12 April 2012 | 13 April 2012 | The 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état occurred in the early hours of 13 April 2012. The soldiers intended to prevent the election of Carlos Gomes Junior, who wanted to implement security reforms which would inhibit the drug trafficking business which had grown in Guinea-Bissau in the decades after independence. In May, Manuel Serifo Nhamadjo, who had come third in the election, was named interim president and the democratic process was stalled until the following year. | Africa |
| Disaster of Bolor | | 19th | 1878 | | The Disaster of Bolor was a conflict between Djola warriors and Portuguese soldiers in what is now Guinea-Bissau. This occurred when a force of 100 Portuguese soldiers were sent to the mouth of the river Cacheu on a punitive mission. Djola warriors had attacked a Portuguese outpost and cut down the mast from which a Portuguese flag flew. On this occasion, the soldiers were met by Djola warriors armed with poison-tipped arrows and lost 50 soldiers and other auxiliaries. This incident led the authorities at Lisbon to focus on Guinea and its separation from Cape Verde in 1879. | Africa |
| Pidjiguiti Massacre | Pidjiguiti Strike | 20th | 3 August 1959 | 3 August 1959 | The Pidjiguiti Massacre, also known as the Pidjiguiti Strike, was a conflict that took place at the Port of Bissau in what is now Guinea-Bissau. Dock workers were among the most exploited in the Portuguese colony and went on strike. The Portuguese authorities responded with violence, killing 50 protesters, and injuring more. The strike and ensuing massacre marked an important moment in the fight for independence. From this point, PAIGC, led by Amilcar Lopes Cabral, resolved to end the colonial rule using whatever means necessary and to abandon their campaign of nonviolence. | Africa |
| 1968 Mauritian Riots | | 20th | 22 January 1968 | 22 January 1968 | The 1968 Mauritian Riots were a conflict between the largely Christian Creole population of Mauritius and Indo-Mauritian Muslims. Riots took place in the Port Louis neighbourhoods of Cité Martial and Plaine Verte and lasted ten days. The cause of the riots were concerns over the country’s independence, which took place just after, and upcoming differences in political dispensation. There were also underlying gang-related issues surrounding the violence. | Africa |
| Uba riots at Union Flacq | Mauritian riots of 1937 | 20th | August 1937 | 13 August 1937 | The Uba Riots at Union Flacq, also known as the Mauritian riots of 1937, was a labour unrest that threatened the Colonial State in Mauritius at the time. A few hundred labourers and sugar cane growers, tired of their low wages, marched on the Union Factory in August. They overturned trucks loaded with canes, cut telephone lines, and burned sugarcane fields. They were met by armed guards and four men died. This event impacted the labour party in Mauritius, formed a year earlier, and meant that they became victims of the British Colonial State, the leaders of the party were exiled or arrested. | Africa |
| First Ivorian Civil War | | 21st | 19 September 2002 | 4 March 2007 | The First Ivorian Civil War was a conflict in the Ivory Coast between the central government of the Ivory Coast and the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d’Ivoire. The government was supported by France and the United States while the insurgents, led by Guillaume Soro, received backing from Russia, Bulgaria and Burkina Faso. The conflict reflected tensions between different religious groups, Muslims in the north and Christians in the south. It was further aggravated by an influx of immigrants from Burkina Faso. Over three thousand people died in the conflict. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Peace Agreement | | 21st | 4 March 2007 | | The Ouagadougou Peace Agreement was a peace treaty which sought to end the First Ivorian Civil War and was signed by Laurent Gbagbo, the President of the Ivory Coast and Guillaume Kigbafori Soro, the Secretary-General of the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d’Ivoire. It was signed with Blaise Compaoré, the President of Burkina Faso, as a facilitator. The agreement set out the importance of both parties working together to consolidate peace and to promote a national reconciliation. | Africa |
| French–Ivorian Clashes | | 21st | November 2004 | November 2004 | The 2004 French-Ivorian Clashes were a series of conflicts in the Ivory Coast between the French military and the Ivory Coast. Ivorian jets killed nine French peacekeepers when attacking the rebel-held northern part of the country. The French retaliated and wiped out the entirety of the Ivory Coast’s small air force. Following this, angry armed mobs rioted on the streets of main cities, threatening, and wounding European residents and tourists. This was encouraged by the government of the Ivory Coast, which urged residents to avenge the country from their former colonists. | Africa |
| Second Ivorian Civil War | | 21st | 28 November 2010 | 11 April 2011 | The Second Ivorian Civil War was a conflict in the Ivory Coast between the military, led by President Laurent Gbagbo, and the Ivorian Popular Front, led by Alassane Ouattara. France had a military presence in the country and decided to support Ouattara. The conflict started because of the disputed result of the election in which Ouattara was declared the winner. The war ended when Ouattara’s forces captured Gbagbo and Ouattara was sworn in as president. | Africa |
| Akapless Revolt | Akapless Uprising | 19th | 1852 | 1852 | The Akapless Revolt, also known as the Akapless Uprising, was a conflict between the French colonists and the Akapless people in the south of what is now the Ivory Coast. The Akapless people, due to their opposition to French accumulation of territories and taxation, rebelled. In retaliation, the French led by Captain Faidherbe brutally suppressed the rebellion and, in doing so, built the forts of Dabou and Grand-Bassam. | Africa |
| Franco-Baoulé War | | 19th, 20th | 1891 | 1911 | The Franco-Baoulé War was a conflict between the Baoulé people and French colonists in what is present-day Ivory Coast. The resistance of the Baoulé hindered French occupation of the central region of the Ivory Coast for almost twenty years. The Baoulé had amassed tens of thousands of guns due to their trade with African and European businessmen in Grand Lahou, Jacqueville and Grand Bassam. These guns were taken between September 1909 and April 1915, when the war was officially over. There is no estimation for the number of dead. | Africa |
| Abbé War | Revolt of the Abbé | 20th | January 1910 | | The Abbé War, also known as the Revolt of the Abbé, was a conflict between French colonial settlers and the Abbé, an Akan people primarily residing in the Ivory Coast. The conflict erupted when the Abbés, tired of victimisation and forced labour imposed by French settlers, revolted in January 1910 by causing damage to various parts of a railway track which cut across their territories. The revolt lasted three months and was quashed by French colonial infantry officer Noguès and his troops. | Africa |
| Agadir Crisis | Second Moroccan Crisis | 20th | April 1911 | November 1911 | The Agadir Crisis, also known as the Agadir Incident, the Second Moroccan Crisis or the Panther Incident, was a conflict between the Germans and the French in Morocco. The Germans sent a gunboat named Panther to Agadir on the pretext of suppressing a native uprising, which in reality was to intimidate the French. The crisis caused panic and international concern that a war might break out. This subsided in November when the Franco-German accord was signed. | Africa |
| Tripolitanian War | Yusuf's Rebellion | 18th | 1790 | 1795 | The Tripolitanian Civil War, also known as Yusuf’s Rebellion, was a war of succession in Tripolitania, present-day Libya. Tensions escalated between leading members of the Karamanli dynasty in July 1790, when an Officer’s eldest son, Hasan, was murdered by his youngest brother Yusuf in their mother’s quarters. The outraged inhabitants of Tripoli rose up against Yusuf and his supporters, who fled to Manshiyya before they could consolidate their power. His brother Ahmad came to power, but in 1791, Yusuf besieged Tripoli. This left a moment of instability which provided Ali Burghul, an adventurer from Algiers, an opportunity to capture Tripoli in 1793. | Africa |
| Ma al-’Aynayn Holy War | Ma al-’Aynayn’s Anti-Colonial Insurgency | 20th | 1904 | 1910 | The Ma al-’Aynayn Holy War, also known as Ma al-’Aynayn’s Anti-Colonial Insurgency and the Ma al-’Aynayn Jihad, was a war fought by Mohamed Mustafa Ma al-’Aynayn, a Sahrawi religious and political leader, against French and Spanish colonisation in Morocco. In 1904, Ma al-’Aynayn proclaimed a Jihad against the colonisers and assembled a large coalition of tribes to fight them. He was defeated by French General Moinier and died at Tiznit in October 1910. | Africa |
| Berber Revolt | Great Berber Revolt of 739-743 | 8th | 739 | 743 | The Berber Revolt, also known as the Great Berber Revolt of 739-743, was a major rebellion by the Berbers against Arab rule in Tangier. The underlying causes of the revolt were the policies of the Umayyad governors in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia). The revolt against Umayyad Arab rulers began in Tangiers in 740, led initially by the Berber rebel Maysara al-Matghari, but soon spread through the rest of the Maghreb (North Africa) and across the straits to al-Andalus (Spain). The rebellion led to the replacement of the caliph by four separate Muslim dynasties. | Africa |
| Ouled Sidi Cheikh Uprising | Revolt in Southern Oran | 19th | March 1864 | 1865 | The Ouled Sidi Cheikh Uprising, also known as the Revolt in Southern Oran and in French as l’Insurrection des Ouled Sidi Cheikh, was a conflict between French settlers in Algeria and the Ouled Sidi Cheikh, an Arab tribal confederacy in the West and South of Algeria led by the descendants of the Sufi saint Ouled Sidi Cheikh. The conflicts erupted in March 1864 due to French officers of the Bureau Arabe disrespecting Ouled traditions. Rebellions against the French spread across Algeria, and although these halted southward French expansion near the northwestern port of Oran, the French suppressed the uprising in April 1865. | Africa |
| Madhist War | Madhist Revolution | 19th | 1881 | 1899 | The Madhist War, also known as the Madhist Revolution, was a war in present-day Sudan between the Mahdist State, led by Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah, and the Khedivate of Egypt, a Western-leaning Egyptian government which had ruled Sudan since 1821. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi (‘expected one’) and his divine mission to purify Islam. After extensive campaigns, the Mahdi and his followers captured Khartoum and defeated a joint British-Egyptian military expedition. Though the Mahdi consolidated his religious empire, his rule was brief, and he died in June 1885. | Africa |
| Anfa Expedition | | 15th | 1468 | | The Anfa Expedition was a conflict between Morocco and the Portuguese, led by the Duke of Viseu and Beja. Anfa (present-day Casablanca) was one of Morocco’s most prosperous port cities, which owed its wealth to imports of currency and luxury goods. It was also a notorious haven for pirates, whose ships departed from the harbour to raid the Iberian peninsula’s coasts. Afonso V, King of Portugal requested that the Duke destroy the city to neutralise the threat it posed. In 1468, the Duke and his Portuguese fleet sacked and almost entirely raised Anfa. The city was left abandoned for almost three centuries. | Africa |
| Conquest of Asilah | Siege of Asilah | 15th | 1471 | 1471 | The Conquest of Asilah, also known as the Siege of Asilah, was a conflict between the Portuguese and the Wattasids in Asilah (Northwest Morocco). With an expansionist agenda, Afonso V arrived at Morocco’s Atlantic coast in August 1471 with an army of 30,000 men and 400 ships. Though the siege took place during a terrible storm to which a number of Portuguese ships were lost, the city of Asilah was successfully captured. Afonso V commissioned the Pastrana Tapestries to illustrate the Portuguese victory at Asilah in 1471, depicting the Portuguese fleet’s landing, the city’s bombardment and the final assault. | Africa |
| First Revolt of the Aurès | Guerre des Aurès ; Mouvement Insurrectionnel de l'Aurès | 19th | 1858 | 1859 | The First Revolt in the Aurès, also known in French as La Guerre des Aurès and the Mouvement Insurrectionnel de l'Aurès, was an insurgency led by Si Sadok-bel-Hadj against French colonial rule. Having successfully led other tribes to revolt against the French, Si Sadok convinced tribespeople across several villages in the Aurès mountains (northeastern Algeria) to rebel. The conflict was heavily and violently repressed by the French, resulting in the capture of Si Sadok and his troops. Si Sadok died in an Algier prison on the 26th of January 1862. | Africa |
| Toussaint Sanglante | Toussaint Rouge | 20th | 1 November 1954 | 1 November 1954 | The Toussaint Rouge, also known as Toussaint Sanglante (Bloody All-Saints' Day),was a series of attacks against the French colonial administration, which took place on 1 November 1954—the Catholic festival of All Saints' Day—in French Algeria. Growing anti-colonialist sentiments against the French had spread across the area and erupted into violence. Barracks and administrative complexes were attacked while bombs and assassinations were reported from the regions of Algier to Oran. The uprising helped spread anti-French resentment and is generally seen to have marked the start of the Algerian War. | Africa |
| Resistance of Sheikh Amoud in Hoggar | | 19th, 20th | 1881 | 1923 | The Resistance of Sheikh Amoud in Hoggar was a rebellion against French colonisation and occupation of Algeria, which hindered the expansionism of the French in the Algerian Sahara. The resistance included that of Bir El Ghrama in the Hoggar, the Battles of Djanet in 1909 and 1918 and the battle of Issako in 1920. Due to the constant advancement of the French colonists, Sheikh Amoud eventually fled to Libya, living there until his death in 1928. | Africa |
| Fall of Agadir | | 16th | March 1541 | September 1541 | The Fall of Agadir was the conquest of the city of Agadir by the Saadians against the Portuguese. Agadir had been occupied by the Portuguese from 1505 to 1541, when it fell to the Saadi Sultanate in a siege that lasted six months. The city had been badly defended and provisioned by the Portuguese, who had lost local support, which led to the surrender of the Portuguese Governor of Agadir and a near total removal of Portuguese presence. | Africa |
| June 4th Uprising | June 4th Rebellion | 20th | 4 June 1979 | 1979 | The June 4th Uprising, also known as the June 4th Rebellion, was an insurgency in Ghana caused by a combination of hardships including corruption, food shortages and widespread bushfires. The uprising was prompted by the military government’s trial of Jerry John Rawlings, a junior military officer in the Ghanaian army, for a failed coup attempt in May 1979. Though Rawlings was able to shine a light on the government’s corruption during this trial, he was sentenced to death. In retaliation, dissident soldiers helped Rawlings to escape his cell on the 3rd of June 1979. A coup followed the next day, as well as large-scale demonstrations across Ghana. | Africa |
| Akwamu Conquest of Accra | | 17th | 1677 | 1681 | The Akwamu Conquest of Accra was an attack led by Akwamuhene Ansa Sasraku II, on the Accra coast (present-day Ghana). Accra was a trading centre of gold and slaves for various European powers such as Portugal, Holland, and England. The Akwamu sacked and burnt the capital and King Okai Kwei fled into the protection of the Danish. The Akwamu gained economic benefits from their invasion of Accra and its importance in the gold and slave trades. | Africa |
| Baixa de Cassange Revolt | Greve da Baixa do Cassange | 20th | 3 Januray 1961 | 4 January 1961 | The Baixa de Cassange Revolt, also known as Greve da Baixa do Cassange, was an uprising in Angola which precipitated the Angolan War of Independence. The revolt began in Cotonang, a cotton-producing plantation, by dissatisfied workers who sought to improve their conditions. Workers attacked plantation bosses and set their own identification cards on fire. The Portuguese launched an air raid to suppress the revolt killing, according to some reports, 10,000 people. The uprising inspired other revolts across Angola. | Africa |
| Invasion of Bono | Asante Invasion | 18th | 1723 | 1724 | The invasion of Bono, also known as the Asante Invasion, was a conflict between the Asante empire, led by the Asantehene Opoku Ware, and Bono, an Akan state (present-day Brong-Ahafo region of Ghana). It is thought that the conflict began when the Bono ruler, Kwakye Ameyaw, sent a gift of gold dust to Asantehene Opoku Ware via an emissary. However, the emissary swapped the gold dust for guns and gunpowder, which Opoku Ware interpreted as an invitation to war. Opoku Ware and his Asante army destroyed Bono Manso (Bono’s capital) and much of Bono’s territory was seized. | Africa |
| Songhai Conquest of Hausaland | Songhai Conquests | 16th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Songhai Conquest of Hausaland, or the Songhai Conquests, was a series of wars between the Songhai King Askia Muhammad and the Kingdom of Hausaland. According to a publication written by the diplomat and author Leo Africanus between 1494 and 1554, the Songhai managed to conquer the cities of Katsina, Kano and Gobir and incorporate them into their growing empire. Leo Africanus places the Songhai invasions among the most important events in Africa during the 16th century. | Africa |
| Jameson Raid | | 19th | 29 December 1895 | 2 January 1896 | The Jameson Raid was a conflict between the Transvaal and the British colonial administration, led by Cecil Rhodes. Dr Leander Starr Jameson crossed into the Transvaal from present-day Botswana with the intention of an invasion. However, most of the Uitlanders (foreigners) had no interest in an uprising against the Transvaal government, the provocation of which had been Rhodes’ intention. The raid was a failure and Jameson was forced to surrender. | Africa |
| Yao Resistance | | 19th | 1885 | 1890 | The Yao Resistance was a conflict between the Yao people and the German forces colonising Southeast Africa (present-day Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi). Key events in the resistance occurred in Kilwa Kivinje, Mikindani and Lindi on the southern coast of Tanzania in 1888, when the German East Africa Company officials attempted to take control of these areas. In 1890, King Machemba issued a declaration to the German Commander, stating willingness to trade but not to submit to German authority. After further engagements, however, the Yao surrendered to German forces. | Africa |
| Mozambican War of Independence | | 20th | 25 September 1964 | 8 September 1974 | The Mozambican War of Independence was a conflict between FRELIMO, Frente de Libertação de Moçambique, and the Portuguese colonial administration. FRELIMO was formed in 1962 by representatives from exiled political groups. In 1964, FRELIMO’s guerrilla forces attacked targets in the north of Mozambique and sparked a war for independence. Portugal, experiencing a similar sentiment in all its colonies, launched a violent military defence which was largely ineffectual. | Africa |
| Goringhaiqua - Dutch Treaty | Dutch-Khoi Agreement of 1672 | 17th | 6 April 1660 | | The Goringhaiqua-Dutch Treaty, also known as the the Dutch-Khoi Agreement of 1672, was a peace treaty which ended the First Khoikhoi-Dutch War. It was signed by the Dutch and by the Goringhaiqua and the Goarchoqua, two clans who had led the resistance and jointly represented the Khoikhoi. Both parties agreed that neither would attack each other in future and that the Khoikhoi would only enter the settlements territory and remain on designated paths for the purpose of trade. The treaty also stipulated that the Dutch settlers retain ownership of the land they occupied, and treat the natives fairly. | Africa |
| Second Khoikhoi–Dutch War | Second Khoi-Dutch War | 17th | 1673 | 1677 | The Second Khoikhoi-Dutch War, also known as the Second Khoi-Dutch War, was a conflict between the Khoikhoi of the Cape (present-day South Africa),and Dutch colonists. As Dutch settlers continued their expansion into Khoikhoi lands, the Khoikhoi retaliated, leading to numerous armed confrontations in the Saldanha Bay and Boland regions. In 1673, the governing authority of the Cape Colony sent a punitive expedition to the Cochoqua clan, marking the start of the second Khoi-Dutch War. After the war, the VOC claimed the land by conquest and allocated seized land to farmers, and the Khoikhoi were incorporated into the Dutch economy as poorly treated labourers. | Africa |
| Somali Rebellion | Somalian Revolution | 20th | 10 April 1978 | 26 January 1991 | The Somali Rebellion, also known as the Somalian Revolution, was a conflict between President Siad Barre’s special forces, nicknamed the Red Berets, and clan-based dissident groups in Somalia. After Barre was injured in a car accident, insurgents within his government joined rebel groups and entered into open conflict. The Somali Rebellion marked the beginning of the Civil War, which resulted in a declaration of independence by Somaliland in 1991. | Africa |
| Banu Ghaniya Invasion of North Africa | Banu Ghaniya Insurrection | 12th, 13th | November 1184 | 1237 / 1238 | The Banu Ghaniya Invasion of North Africa, also known as the Banu Ghaniya Insurrection or the Banu Ghaniyya Rebellion, was a series of military campaigns by the Banu Ghaniya against the Almohads in Northern Africa. After losing their status as rulers in Spain, the Banu Ghaniya managed to retain control of the Balearic Islands. Muhammad Banu Ghaniya was ousted by his brother Ali, who invaded the eastern Maghrib, attacking Bijaya in November 1184 and captured Algiers and Milyana. | Africa |
| Sack of Damietta | Raid of Damietta | 9th | 22nd May 853 | 24th May 853 | The Sack of Damietta, also known as the Raid of Damietta, was an attack on the port city of Damietta in Egypt by the Byzantine navy. The Byzantine Empire had lost Egypt to the Arabs more than 200 hundred years prior and wanted to regain control of its territories. While Damietta’s garrison was absent, the Byzantines attacked the city with 85 ships and 5,000 men over two days. Six hundred Arab and Coptic women, as well as large quantities of arms and other supplies intended for Crete were taken in the raid, and Damietta was torched by Byzantine troops. | Africa |
| Fifth Crusade | | 13th | 1217 | 1221 | The Fifth Crusade was a campaign in a series of crusades by Western Europeans with the intention of conquering Jerusalem by first destroying Muslim power in the region. A combined army of Frisian, German and Italian crusaders set out to Egypt and captured the entire town of Damietta in 1219. In 1221, when Cardinal-Legate Pelagius ordered an advance of Cairo, the Christian army was defeated due to their lack of knowledge of the terrain. The Egyptian sultan Al-Malik al-Kāmil had received Francis of Assisi courteously during the crusade, but had declined to convert to Christianity. | Africa |
| Great Insurrection | Great Sedition | 18th | 1711 | | The Great Insurrection, also known as the Great Sedition, was a factional war in Egypt between the Qasimiyya and the Azabans fighting against the Faqariyya, the ruling faction at the time. The Faqariyya had enjoyed political dominance since 1692, when they had increased their influence over the Janissaries. The war began with an imperial decree against military patronages and ended with the defeat of the Faqariyya. | Africa |
| Madeira Uprising | Revolt of the Deported | 20th | 4 April 1931 | 6 May 1931 | The Madeira Uprising, also known as the Revolt of the Deported or the Island Revolt, was a conflict that began in Madeira but spread to Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique and São Tomé. The revolt started when junior officers of the Special Delegate of the Government of the Republic, sent by the National Dictatorship in Portugal, began occupying buildings and arresting senior leaders loyal to the government. Following the defeat of the uprising in Madeira on 6 May 1931, the rebels in Portuguese Guinea also surrendered. | Africa |
| Nigerian Civil War | Biafran War | 20th | 6 July 1967 | 15 January 1970 | The Nigerian Civil war, also known as the Biafran War or the Nigerian–Biafran War, was a conflict built upon ethnic tensions fought between Nigeria’s federal government and Biafra, a secessionist state. Nigeria was largely controlled by three ethnic groups, the Yoruba, the Igbo and the Hausa-Fulani and, due to endemic conflicts and mounting tensions, the federal government was on the brink of collapse. After rising tensions and instabilities, the Republic of Biafra unilaterally declared its independence from Nigeria in May 1967, which Nigeria’s federal government interpreted as an act of rebellion. After 30 months of bitter fighting, the war ended in Biafra’s surrender. | Africa |
| Banjul III Peace Accord | Banjul III Agreement | 20th | 24 October 1990 | | The Banjul III Peace Accord, also known as the Banjul III Agreement, was a peace treaty and a ceasefire that aimed to end civil conflict in Liberia between the Armed Forces of Liberia, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). Though the parties agreed to convene a second All-Liberian Conference that would hold a new election for an interim administration, the NPFL made a concerted effort to prevent the development of the proposed conference, refusing to sign the agreement due to their belief that the accord would not lead to their goal of making Charles Taylor, the NPFL leader, the head of the interim government. | Africa |
| Banjul IV Agreement | | 20th | 21 December 1990 | | The Banjul IV Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Gambia’s capital by the warring parties of the Armed Forces of Liberia, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). The agreement stipulated that all parties continue the ceasefire agreed on 28 November 1990 in Bamako. The treaty also bound its signatories to form a future interim government and to organise an All Liberia Conference within 60 days. | Africa |
| Lomé Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 13 February 1991 | | The Lomé Ceasefire Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL),The National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL) in the Togolese Republic. The treaty was witnessed by the President of the Republic of The Gambia and detailed a ceasefire of the civil conflict in Liberia. | Africa |
| Lomé Peace Agreement | | 20th | 7 July 1999 | | The Lomé Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Togo by the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone with the intention of a cessation of hostilities. The treaty set out the nature of a ceasefire between parties, governance management of national reconstruction and other political issues. The treaty was protested by international humanitarian group and within Sierra Leone, because it gave Foday Sankoh, the brutal leader of the RUF, control over the diamond mines. | Africa |
| Yamoussoukro IV Accord | | 20th | 30 October 1991 | | The Yamoussoukro IV Accord was a peace treaty signed in the Ivory Coast by Dr. Amos Sawyer, President of the Interim Government of Liberia, and Charles Taylor, Head of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL). Also present at the Committee were the presidents of Burkina Faso, the Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Togo and representatives from Sierra Leone, Gambia, Guinea and Ghana. The treaty set out a plan for disarmament and cessation of hostility in Liberia during the First Liberian Civil War. | Africa |
| Abidjan Peace Accord | | 20th | 30 November 1996 | | The Abidjan Peace Accord was a peace treaty signed by President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of Sierra Leone and Foday Sankoh, the leader of Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebel group in the Ivory Coast. Though treaty was intended to end the civil war in Sierra Leone, Sankoh refused to honour the terms of the agreement only a year after signing the accord, and Kabbah was forced into exile by a military coup, resulting in the accord’s failure to bring about peace. | Africa |
| Akosombo Peace Agreement | Accra Clarification | 20th | 12 September 1994 | | The Akosombo Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL),United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO) and Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) in Ghana. The treaty supplemented and amended the Cotonou Agreement and intended to end the Liberian Civil War. All parties agreed to disarmament and the unamended terms of the Cotonou Agreement. | Africa |
| Lancaster House Agreement | | 20th | 21 December 1979 | | The Lancaster House Agreement was a series of agreements signed in London. The signing of agreements effectively terminated armed conflict in Zimbabwe and led to Rhodesia achieving recognition as an independent Zimbabwe. This agreement repealed the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) which declared that Rhodesia regarded itself as an independent sovereign state. This declaration had not been recognised by the UK or the UN and had been instigated by a largely white minority elite. The UDI had provoked violent insurgency from black nationalist groups. Rhodesia temporarily returned to its status as a colony before the election of Robert Mugabe in 1980. | Africa |
| Accord de Cessation des Hostilités | | 20th | 16 November 1999 | | The Accord de Cessation des Hostilités en République du Congo (Ceasefire Agreement in the Republic of Congo) was a peace treaty signed by The High Command of the Force Publique and armed factions, including the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo (MNLC). The treaty was part of the peace process after the Second Congo Civil War and included agreements to the cessation of hostilities throughout the Congo, the demilitarisation of political parties, movements and associations and the collection of all illegal weaponry. | Africa |
| Nakuru County Peace Accord | Rift Valley Peace Accord | 21st | 19 August 2012 | | The Nakuru County Peace Accord, also known as the Rift Valley Peace Accord, was a peace treaty signed by elders of ethnic groups in Kenya. The peace accord was intended to end the cycle of violence that had been occurring in the Rift Valley and was especially notable during the 2007 Presidential Elections. The accord was finalised after discussions over 16 months. | Africa |
| Nakuru Agreement | | 20th | 21 June 1975 | | The Nakuru Agreement was a peace agreement between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA),the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA),and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA),divided black nationalist movements that, despite previous agreements, had been engaging in violence and political discord. The agreement was an attempt to salvage the Alvor Agreement, which granted Angola independence from Portugal and established a transitional government. Though the Nakuru Agreement succeeded in creating a truce between the three nationalist movements, it was dissolved on the 9th July 1975. | Africa |
| N'sele Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 12 July 1992 | | The N’sele Ceasefire Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the government of the Rwandese Republic and the Rwandese Patriotic Front during the Rwandan Civil War. The treaty implemented a ceasefire for the purpose of a dialogue and negotiation between the two parties. This ceasefire was unsuccessful and both sides continued fighting until the end of the war in July 1994. | Africa |
| Arusha Accords | Arusha Peace Agreements | 20th | 4 August 1993 | | The Arusha Accords, also known as the Arusha Peace Agreements and Arusha Negotiations, was a peace treaty signed by the government of Rwanda and the rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF),under mediation, with the intention of ending a three-year Rwandan Civil War. This followed the N’sele Cease-fire Agreement which had not been adhered to. The Arusha Accords stipulated the need for an investigation into human rights violations in Rwanda at the time, and other points considered necessary for lasting peace such as the rule of law, repatriation of refugees both from fighting and from power-sharing agreements, and the merging of government and rebel armies. | Africa |
| Kampala Accord | | 21st | 9 June 2011 | | The Kampala Accord was a peace agreement made in order to end the transitional phase of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in Somalia. The party had been in power since 2004 and had forced out the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). However, Al-Shabaab, who had split off from the ICU, were at the forefront of an insurgency in Somalia at the time. The conditions of the Kampala Accord included the resignation of Prime Minister Mohamed Formajo, of the TFG, within 30 days of signing. Protests ensued and the Kampala decision was brought before parliament for deliberation. | Africa |
| Conakry Peace Plan | Conakry Agreement | 20th | 23 October 1997 | | The Conakry Peace Plan, also known as the Conakry Agreement, was a treaty which sought to implement a six-month peace plan for Sierra Leone after the coup d’état of the same year. The treaty provided for the immediate cessation of hostilities, disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration of combatants and the provision of humanitarian assistance amongst other techniques for peace. It also set out a schedule for enactment. On behalf of the ECOWAS committee of five, the treaty was signed by the ministers of foreign affairs of Nigeria and Guinea. | Africa |
| Ziguinchor Peace Agreement | | 21st | 30 December 2004 | | The Ziguinchor Peace Agreement was a treaty signed by the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) and the government of Senegal in order to agree a truce, which lasted until 2006. The Casamance conflict, still ongoing, is a war between the government of Senegal and separatists, regarding the independence of the region of Casamance whose inhabitants are largely religiously and ethnically distinct from the rest of the population. In the treaty, the state committed to ensuring the general safety and freedom of movement in Casamance, while the MFDC agreed to renounce armed conflict. | Africa |
| Settlement Plan | Settlement Proposals | 20th | 30 August 1998 | | The Settlement Plan, also known as the Settlement Proposals, was a set of agreements by the United Nations put forward to and signed by Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The treaty was intended to provide a solution to the conflict in Western Sahara, proposing a ceasefire and a referendum which would enable the population of Western Sahara to choose between independence from or integration with Morocco. The referendum never occurred. | Africa |
| Houston Accords | Results of the Fourth Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 16 September 1997 | | The Houston Accords, also known as the Results of the Fourth Round of Direct Talks and the Houston Agreement, was a peace agreement between Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The accord aimed at ending the conflict in the Western Sahara and to give the population a referendum, previously stalled in 1992, to decide between independence from, or integration with Morocco. The agreement was signed in Houston after peace talks conducted by the Secretary-General’s Personal Envoy for Western Sahara, James Baker, from 14 September 1997 to 16 September 1997. | Africa |
| Lisbon Compromise | Results of the Third Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 29 August 1997 | | The Lisbon Compromise, also known as the Results of the Third Round of Direct Talks, was a peace agreement to end the conflict in the Western Sahara. It was signed by Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara, and dealt with issues such as the containment of troops and the repatriation of prisoners. The compromise did not intend to alter or affect the borders of Western Sahara and clearly stated that it could not serve as a precedent for any argument that these borders had changed. | Africa |
| London Compromise Agreement | Results of the Second Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 20 July 1997 | | The London Compromise Agreement on Outstanding Identification Issues, also known as the Results of the Second Round of Direct Talks, was an agreement between Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The agreement requested the repatriation of refugees from Western Sahara, and intended to organise and identify tribal groups for a referendum on Western Sahara’s integration into, or independence from Morocco. | Africa |
| Bangui Accords | Declaration on the End of the Rebellious Action | 20th | 25 January 1997 | | The Bangui Accords, also known as the Declaration on the End of the Rebellious Action, Bangui Agreements and Bangui Peace Accords, was an agreement between the Government, led by Ange-Félix Patassé, and rebel groups. The agreement aimed to bring the conflict which had begun in 1995. Though a new prime minister, Michael Gbezera-Bria, was elected after the signing of the agreement, unrest continued. | Africa |
| Birao Peace Agreement | Accord de Paix de Birao | 21st | 1 April 2007 | | The Birao Peace Agreement, also known as the Accord de Paix de Birao, was an agreement between the Government of the Central African Republic and the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity, a politico-military movement. The agreement called for an immediate cessation of hostilities, containment of the troops of the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity and the liberation of political prisoners, as well as the implementation of a programme for peace. It was signed by General Ndougou Raymond for the government of CAR and Zacharia Damane for the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity. | Africa |
| Accord de Riyadh | | 21st | 3 April 2007 | | The Accord Bilatéral pour le Développement et le Renforcement des Relations entre Soudan et Tchad, also known as the Accord de Riyadh, was an agreement between Chad and Sudan with the intention of reaffirming respect of borders after the Chadian army entered Sudanese territory in April 2007. The two countries agreed to restore stability in the region of Darfur and to develop and strengthen relations between the two countries. | Africa |
| Tripoli Agreement | Libya Accord | 21st | 8 February 2006 | | The Tripoli Agreement, also known as the Libya Accord and the Tripoli Declaration, was an agreement between Chad and Sudan which intended to settle their differences. The agreement was signed by heads of state Omar Hassan El Beshir, on behalf of Sudan, and Idriss Deby Itno, on behalf of Chad. Relations between the two countries had deteriorated as both had been accused of supporting rebellions in the other. Following the signing of the accord, the Chadian government was almost toppled by rebels. Idriss Deby blamed Sudan for supporting the insurgency. | Africa |
| Operation Linda Nchi | Operation Protect the Nation | 21st | 16 October 2011 | | Operation Linda Nchi, also known as Operation Protect the Nation, was a Kenyan offensive in Somalia against Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab are a Sunni Islamist military and political group who operate largely in Somalia. The pretext for the attack was a series of kidnappings by Al Shabaab in September but, due its scale, it has been concluded that the operation was planned for some time before enaction. It was likely that a motive for Kenya was that the threat of Al Shabaab had been threatening Kenya’s industries, especially tourism. | Africa |
| Operation Sledge Hammer | Battle of Kismayo | 21st | 28 September 2012 | | Operation Sledgehammer, also known as the Battle of Kismayo, was a military offensive launched by the Kenyan Defence Forces (KDF) on the port city of Kismayo controlled by the Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab are a Sunni Islamist military and political group that operates largely in Somalia. They had been captured by Kismayo four years earlier in 2008 and turned the city into the Islamist group’s strategic base. The KDF, supported by the Somalian government, managed to capture the city and the operation was successful. | Africa |
| Allied Democratic Forces Insurgency | ADF Insurgency | 20th, 21st | 13 November 1996 | Ongoing | The Allied Democratic Forces Insurgency (ADF Insurgency) is an ongoing conflict in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The ADF is an insurgent group that was formed in Uganda after the fall of Idi Amin. Although the group has Islamist roots and has been linked with the Islamic State, it also recruited its members along secular ethnic lines. The ADF’s first attacks took place in Kampala in 1996. However, more recently the ADF have focused their attacks in the DRC and directed deadly suicide bombings, blown up churchgoers, and beheaded and burned villagers. | Africa |
| Guerre des Six Jours | Six-Day War (2000) | 21st | 5 June 2000 | 10 June 2000 | La Guerre des Six Jours, also known as the Six-Day War, was a conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the city of Kisangani. The war consisted of the occupation of Kisangani, a coveted river port, by the Ugandan and Rwandan armies. More than a thousand people died and many more were wounded. The occupation was deemed illegal by the United Nations but, despite Uganda and Rwanda being ordered to pay reparations, the crime has gone unpunished. | Africa |
| South Sudanese Civil War | | 21st | 15 December 2013 | 22 February 2020 | The South Sudanese Civil War was a conflict in South Sudan between soldiers loyal to President Salva Kiir and insurgent forces led by his deputy, Riek Machar. The war killed an estimated 400,000 people and displaced many more. Ethnic divides played into the reasons for the violence and, although the two leaders are members of the same movement called the SPLM, they are from different ethnic groups, the Dinka and Nuer. Although throughout the war various peace treaties were signed the peace process is ongoing and set to be finalised in 2024 with an election. | Africa |
| Yau Yau Agreement | | 21st | 9 May 2014 | | The Yau Yau Agreement or the Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in Jonglei State, was an agreement aimed to achieve peace and promote unity amongst the different ethnic minorities in South Sudan including the Dinka, Nuer, Murle, Anyuak, Kechipo and Jie. This agreement was signed by the Government of the Republic of South Sudan and the South Sudan Democratic Movement/Army Cobra Faction in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The agreement was part of the peace process after the South Sudan Civil War. | Africa |
| Mali War | | 21st | January 2012 | Ongoing | The Mali War is an ongoing conflict in Mali that started with the fourth Tuareg uprising in January 2012. Like other Tuareg uprisings, its roots were in France’s colonialism. Although this rebellion ended in 2015 with the Algiers Peace Agreement, the accord was never implemented by the military junta, led by Colonel Assimi Goïta, and the country has remained in a state of violent unease. | Africa |
| Operation Azalée | | 20th | 28 September 1995 | 3 October 1995 | Operation Azalée was an expedition in the Comoros, an independent country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. Led by France, the operation intended to depose a provisional government that had been put in power by Bob Denard, a French mercenary who had led a coup a few months earlier. The operation was successful and Denard was arrested. | Africa |
| 2008 Invasion of Anjouan | Operation Democracy in Comoros | 21st | 25 March 2008 | 25 March 2008 | The 2008 Invasion of Anjouan, also known as Operation Democracy in Comoros, was a conflict in the Comoros, an independent country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. The invasion occurred when the island of Anjouan was retaken by the central government after it had been held by rebel groups and Colonel Mohamed Bacar, who had refused to step down after a disputed election result the previous year. The invasion was backed by African Union forces, troops from Sudan, Tanzania, Senegal, and had logistical support from France and Libya. The invasion was successful. | Africa |
| Agacher Strip War | Christmas War | 20th | 25 December 1985 | 30 December 1985 | The Agacher Strip War, also known as the Christmas War or Guerre de Noël, was a war fought between Burkina Faso and Mali over a strip of the frontier in the north of Burkina Faso. The war lasted only five days, ending in a ceasefire and a decision to split the Agacher strip, made in The International Court of Justice in the Hague, which both parties accepted. The Malian claim to the border lands was based on ethnic grounds, while Burkina Faso relied on the frontiers inherited from colonial times. | Africa |
| Jihadist Insurgency in Burkina Faso | | 21st | 23 August 2015 | Ongoing | The Jihadist Insurgency in Burkina Faso is a conflict between the government and Islamist groups such as Ansaroul Islam, the Islamic State in West Africa Province (ISWAP),the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS),and the Group for the Support of Islam and Muslims (JNIM). Between 2015 and 2020, more than 550 attacks were carried out by Jihadists. Attacks have continued as of 2023, mostly in the Sahel region, resulting in thousands of casualties and over 2,000,000 displaced people. | Africa |
| 2014 Burkino Faso Uprising | 2014 Burkinabé Uprising | 21st | 28 October 2014 | 3 November 2014 | The 2014 Burkina Faso Uprising, also known as the 2014 Burkinabé Uprising, was an insurgency in Burkina Faso that resulted in the collapse of President Blaise Compaoré’s government, who had been in power for 27 years. Compaore’s attempt to put through a bill which would extend his term in office led to the demonstrations which spread throughout Burkina Faso. Rioters burnt the homes of the president’s relatives and the protests became increasingly more violent until Compaore resigned, escaping in exile to the Ivory Coast. | Africa |
| Entumbane I | 1980 Entumbane Clashes | 20th | 9 November 1980 | 10 November 1980 | Entumbane I, also known as the 1980 Entumbane Clashes, was a conflict in Zimbabwe in the period immediately following Zimbabwean independence. The clashes were between the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). 58 people died and over 500 people were wounded. The conflict ended with a ceasefire but was followed by a larger uprising the following year. | Africa |
| Entumbane II | Battle of Bulawayo | 20th | 8 February 1981 | 12 February 1981 | Entumbane II, also known as the Battle of Bulawayo, the 1981 Entumbane Clashes or the Matebeleland Conflict, was a conflict in 1981 between the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) within the Zimbabwe National Army. There were fears that the mutiny could lead to a civil war. The uprising was defeated by the Rhodesian African Rifles and other white-led elements of ex-colonial forces. | Africa |
| Rome General Peace Accords | Acordo Geral de Paz | 20th | 4 October 1992 | | The Rome General Peace Accords, also known as Acordo Geral de Paz, was a peace agreement signed by the Republic of Mozambique and RENAMO, with the intention of ending the Civil War in Mozambique. The accords detailed a ceasefire, the criteria for the formation and recognition of political parties, and the need for freedom of the press and liberty of movement, amongst other protocols. RENAMO ended its commitment to the peace deal in 2013 when the government attacked their base. | Africa |
| Gukurahundi | Matabeleland Massacres | 20th | 1983 | 1987 | Gukurahundi, also known as the Gukurahundi Massacres or Matabeleland Massacre, was a genocide in Zimbabwe initiated and performed by the Fifth Brigade and ordered by Robert Mugabe. Somewhere between 20,000 and 80,000 civilians were murdered. The Fifth Brigade had been trained in North Korea and were almost exclusively Shona speaking, those who suffered at their hands were Ndebele. Mugabe believed that Joshua Nkomo, leader of the Zimbabwe African People's Union and a Ndebele nationalist, was a threat to his presidency. | Africa |
| Unity Accord of 1987 | | 20th | 22 December 1987 | | The Unity Accord of 1987 was a peace agreement signed in Zimbabwe with the intention of inciting a peaceful end to the violence in the country, including the Gukurahundi Massacres. Joshua Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) was integrated into Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU),creating ZANU-PF (Patriotic Front). The motive was to form one united nationalist party as a means to prevent ethnic violence. | Africa |
| Kivu Conflict | | 21st | 2 June 2004 | Ongoing | The Kivu Conflict is a general term for the ongoing conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo taking place in the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces in the east of the country. This conflict both fed into and outgrew the Second Congo War, beginning between the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda with a clash in 2004. The conflict has included severe human rights abuses including of children and sexual violence. | Africa |
| Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin | | 17th, 18th | 1689 | 1721 | The Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin was a war in the Edo Kingdom of Benin that started around the time that Ewuakpe succeeded to the throne. This King, or Oba, experienced a severe rebellion due to his ordering of human sacrifices at the death of his mother. His people would not supply him with food or labour and Benin city was sacked. At the time, the Dutch were trading Ivory in Benin and much of the documentation we have of the time is from these traders. | Africa |
| Ilemi Triangle Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1963 | Ongoing | The Ilemi Triangle conflict is a border dispute between Kenya and South Sudan over the Ilemi Triangle border, which is both oil and water rich. The border was drawn up in 1914 arbitrarily and lies at the north-western corner of Lake Turkana. The conflict began in 1963 when Kenya made claims to the area. Kenya and South Sudan have agreed to talks but skirmishes and flare ups erupt sporadically. | Africa |
| War in Somalia | Ethiopian Intervention in Soamlia | 21st | 2006 | 2009 | The War in Somalia, also known as the Ethiopian Intervention in Somalia and the Ethiopian Involvement in the Somali Civil War, was a conflict in Somalia that began in 2006 when the Ethiopian National Defence Forces (ENDF),backed by the United States, intervened in Somalia. Their purpose was to aid the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) against the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). This precipitated the insurgent campaign of the ICU, al-Shabaab and other Somali militias. Ethiopia’s military presence in Somalia finished in 2009 when a government of national unity was formed. | Africa |
| Ituri Conflict | | 21st | | Ongoing | The Ituri Conflict is an ongoing war between the Lendu and Hema people in the East of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The conflict between these two peoples has its origin in the colonial era when the Belgian administration gave power to the Hema and marginalised the Lendu people, who claim to be indigenous to the region. This marginalisation continued after independence when the Hema received agricultural concessions from President Mobutu Sese Seko. The conflict ran alongside the Second Congo War and has had a resurgence since 2017. | Africa |
| War in Darfur | Land Cruiser War | 21st | 25 February 2003 | 31 August 2020 | The War in Darfur, also known as the Land Cruiser War or the Darfur Conflict, was a war in Sudan between the Sudan Liberation Movement, joined by the Justice and Equality Movement, against the government of Sudan. The reason for the uprising was the rebel’s claim that the government disregarded the non-Arab population. In response to the insurrection, the government armed Arab militias, known as Janjaweed, to fight the rebels. As a result of the war, Bashir, the president of Sudan, was issued an arrest warrant for crimes against humanity and war crimes. | Africa |
| Oromo Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1973 | Ongoing | The Oromo Conflict is an ongoing conflict between the government of Ethiopia and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF). The OLF are a separatist group, with an armed wing called the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA),who wish to establish an independent state of Oromia due to prejudiced attitudes toward the Oromo people, especially during the reign of Haile Selassie when the Oromo language was banned. The conflict has been ongoing for 50 years with instances of a violent uprising in 2021 most recently. | Africa |
| Western Togoland Rebellion | Ewe Independence Movement | 21st | 2020 | Ongoing | The Western Togoland Rebellion, also known as the Ewe Independence Movement, is a secessionist insurgency in Ghana. The revolt is led by the Western Togoland Restoration Front (WTRF) whose demands are centred around the independence of former British Togoland. WTRF was formed in 2019 and carried out a unilateral declaration of independence of Western Togoland the following year. The movement launched various attacks on police stations and arms depots, and riots also ensued. | Africa |
| Liberation of Réunion | Battle of Réunion | 20th | 28 November 1942 | | The Liberation of Réunion, also known as the Battle of Réunion, was a conflict in the island of Réunion, part of the Mascarene Islands. The conflict consisted of an invasion by the Free French Naval Forces at Saint-Denis. The island was under the control of the Vichy regime at the time but the invasion by the Free French, in the Leopard destroyer warship, toppled this administration and aligned the island with the Allies during World War II. Later, in 1946, Réunion became a French overseas territory. | Africa |
| 1936 Uprising in Spanish Guinea | | 20th | | October 1936 | The 1936 Uprising in Spanish Guinea was a conflict that took place as part of the Spanish Civil War in Equatorial Guinea. The disagreement was about governance of the island and took place between Republicans and Nationalists, the Nationalists won the island in October when a Nationalist ship travelling from the Canary Islands, called the Ciudad de Mahon, arrived at Fernando Poo. The ship was used to shell Bata, a port city. The remaining Republicans fled to French Congo, Gabon or were extradited back to Spain the following month. | Africa |
| Battle of Dimawe | | 19th | August 1852 | August 1852 | The Battle of Dimawe was a conflict in what is now Botswana between the Botswana tribes of Bakwena, Bahurutshe, Balete and Batlokwa against the Boers of Transvaal. The conflict started when the Boers followed a group of Bahurutshe slaves who had escaped their work in the corn fields pulling ploughs. The effort against the Boers was led by Kgosi Sechele whose army rolled large stones from atop the Dimawe hill in order to kill the Boer men. Accounts do not make clear how long the battle lasted but it is clear that the Boers were defeated. | Africa |
| Insurgency in Cabo Delgado | | 21st | 5 October 2017 | Ongoing | The Insurgency in Cabo Delgado is an ongoing conflict in Mozambique’s northernmost province between the government and the Islamist group, Al-Shabaab. This was partially prompted by the discovery of natural gas fields in the area, and much of the fighting is taking place near to port towns where major offshore liquified natural gas projects are underway. Atrocities have been committed by both the government forces and Al-Shabaab, and many have died or been displaced. | Africa |
| 2012 Kufra Conflict | Battle for Kufra | 21st | 12 February 2012 | 1 July 2012 | The 2012 Kufra conflict, also known as the Battle for Kufra, was a conflict in Kufra that began in 2012 and resurged in 2015. Kufra is an oasis town in the southeastern Libyan desert. The conflict was largely fought between the Arab Bedouin Zawaya Tribe and the Tebu tribes, but also brought in Tebu from Chad and Sudan. Given its location on the roads to Chad and Sudan, Kufra is of strategic importance in the smuggling of goods and peoples. | Africa |
| First Libyan Civil war | Libyan Revolt of 2011 | 21st | 15 February 2011 | 23 October 2011 | The First Libyan Civil War, also known as the Libyan Revolt of 2011, started in February 2011 amid a wave of popular protest in the Middle East and North Africa, known as the Arab Spring. Protestors called for the end of Qaddafi’s regime and the release of political prisoners. The Libyan authorities used lethal force against protestors and attacked them with tanks, artillery warplanes and helicopter gunships. Qaddafi blamed the uprising on outside actors. NATO troops were sent into Libya and the fighting continued until October when Qaddafi fled to Algeria. | Africa |
| Second Libyan Civil war | | 21st | 16 May 2014 | 23 October 2020 | The Second Libyan Civil war was a conflict fought mainly between the Tobruk administration, led by Haftar in the east, and the Government of National Accord (GNA),led by Sarraj in Tripoli. Libya, a country rich in oil, never recovered from the uprising of 2011 and the fall of Qaddafi. Power was split between the two parties and although the GNA was officially recognised as the Libyan government by the UN, it did not hold actual power on the ground. The war ended after a long peace process in October 2020, but as of 2023 elections in Libya are yet to take place. | Africa |