| Vietnam War | Resistance War Against America | 20th | 1954 | 30 April 1975 | The Vietnam War, also known in Vietnam as the Resistance War Against America, has its roots in French Colonial rule. This drawn-out war was fought in the shadow of the Cold War. Fearing the spread of communism, the United States allied with the South Vietnamese State to fight an independence movement driven by communist North Vietnam and the Viet Mihn, led by Ho Chi Minh. More than three million people were killed with more than 25 per cent of the dead being civilians. | Asia |
| Paris Peace Accords | | 20th | 27 January 1973 | | The Paris Peace Accords, also known in Vietnam as the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam, were officially signed in 1973. They are the agreement that ended direct US military involvement in Vietnam. The stipulations included the withdrawal of American and foreign troops, freedom for American prisoners of war and US provision of economic assistance to rebuild infrastructure. The accords did not end the war as hostilities continued until 1975. | Asia |
| First Indochina War | Anti-French War | 20th | 1946 | 1954 | The First Indochina War, also known as the Anti-French War, was fought between France (supported by the US) and the Viet Minh, a communist independence movement who declared Vietnam's independence from France after World War II. Returning French colonial forces intent on bringing Vietnam under French colonial control again sparked an anti-colonial struggle for liberation by the Viet Minh. It caused over 175,000 civilian deaths, ended French colonial rule, and initiated the 1954 Geneva Accords. | Asia |
| Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam | | 20th | 21 July 1954 | | The Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam was one of the agreements set out in the 1954 Geneva Accords, also known as the Geneva Agreements. The agreements were reached during a conference whose focus included resolving the war between France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Though attended by representatives from nine countries, the accords are considered a failure as the major nations did not sign the agreements or honour their terms. | Asia |
| Franco-Thai War | | 20th | 1941 | 1941 | The Franco-Thai War was fought when Thailand, led by its authoritarian leader Phibun invaded French Indochina, present-day Laos and Cambodia, to regain lost territories. French Indochina was a very lucrative colony governed by Vichy France. French success in this war against Thailand triggered Japanese involvement, which halted the war and forced France to cede substantial portions of Indochina to Thailand. Casualties were confined to both armed forces. | Asia |
| Cambodian-Vietnamese War | | 20th | 25 December 1978 | 1989 | The Cambodian-Vietnamese War, also known as the Counter-offensive on the Southwestern Border, was fought between Cambodia, under Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge control, and Vietnam. The Khmer Rouge regime’s systematic murder of nearly a quarter of Cambodia’s population, up to two million Cambodian nationals instigated this bloody war. It resulted in the removal of Pol Pot and his government from power but also over 3,000 Vietnamese civilian deaths, and deaths of nearly 30,000 Vietnamese troops. | Asia |
| Sino-Vietnamese War | War Against Chinese Expansionism | 20th | 17 February 1979 | 16 March 1979 | The Sino-Vietnamese War, also known as the War Against Chinese Expansionism, was fought between China and Vietnam. The war was triggered by the Vietnamese eradication of the pro-Beijing Khmer Rouge regime and its genocidal leader Pol Pot. Neither side made public the true number of casualties, but Western estimates suggest 10,000 Vietnamese deaths, and up to 28,000 Chinese deaths with 43,000 wounded. Although both countries claimed victory, the war is taboo, and bitter hostilities remain. | Asia |
| Cambodian Civil War | | 20th | 1967 | 1975 | The Cambodian Civil War was fought between forces of the Khmer Rouge, supported by North Vietnam and the Viet Cong, and the government forces of the Kingdom of Cambodia, heavily supported by The United States. The war evolved from small-scale peasant uprisings to a full-blown insurgency led by the anti-government Khmer Rouge. It led to the Cambodian Genocide in which up to nearly two million people died and 25% of the population were displaced. | Asia |
| Paris Peace Agreements | Comprehensive Cambodian Peace Agreements | 20th | 23 October 1991 | | The 1991 Paris Peace Agreements, also known as Comprehensive Cambodian Peace Agreements, were agreements that marked the end of the Cambodian-Vietnamese War. The agreements laid out a plan to end a conflict that had been going on for over 20 years, and was responsible for the deaths of nearly two million people under the Khmer Rouge regime. Under the terms of the agreement, the United Nations were to supervise the ceasefire and prepare the country for democratic elections. | Asia |
| Franco-Thai Peace Treaty | | 20th | 9 May 1941 | 17 November 1946 | The Franco-Thai Peace Treaty was a formal peace treaty between Thailand and France, mediated by the Japanese Empire. A ceasefire agreement was initially signed aboard the Japanese cruiser Natori, in Saigon, French Indochina, followed by the signing of the peace treaty by representatives from Thailand and France in Tokyo, Japan, officially ending the war. As part of the treaty, The Japanese dictated that France would return territories in Cambodia and Laos, back to Thailand, thus relinquishing France’s control of disputed border areas. | Asia |
| Franco-Thai Settlement Treaty | | 20th | 17 November 1946 | | The Franco-Thai Settlement Treaty of 1946 was a new peace treaty that annulled the Franco-Thai Peace Treaty of 1941. Following the end of WWII and the surrender of the Japanese Empire in August 1945, the Siamese government was keen to restore its relations with the Allied Powers. They agreed to the return of territories taken from France during the Franco-Thai War. In exchange, the French Government endorsed Siamese membership to the United Nations. | Asia |
| Vientiane Agreement | | 20th | 21 February 1973 | 15 August 1975 | The Vientiane Agreement was a cease-fire agreement signed by the warring factions in the Laotian Civil War, the Kingdom of Laos, and Pathet Lao, the communist faction. The treaty was signed in the Laos capital, Vientiane, and mandated the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Laos that were allied to each side. A new coalition government was formed but it did not last long and the treaty was annulled after the fall of the South Vietnamese government in 1975, when the communist Pathet Lao took over Laos. | Asia |
| Laotian Civil War | Secret War | 20th | 1959 | 02 December 1975 | The Laotian Civil War, also known as the Secret War, was a civil war fought between the Royal Lao Government, rightists under General Nosavan, and the Communist Pathet Lao. When the French Empire transferred its control of Laos to the Royal Lao Government, excluding the anti-colonial Pathet Lao movement, it incited civil war. The conflict was heavily supported by foreign Cold War superpowers engaged in a proxy war. Intense United States bombing has left Laos severely contaminated with unexploded weapons affecting the health of Laotians to this day. | Asia |
| Franco-Lao Treaty of Amity and Association | | 20th | 22 October 1953 | | The Franco-Lao Treaty of Amity and Association transferred France’s remaining political control to Laos. Although the Kingdom of Laos was proclaimed in 1947, France remained in control, and Laos remained a part of the colonial French Union. As anti-colonial independence movements gained momentum across Indochina, France agreed to offer Laos independence as a constitutional monarchy. France’s deliberate exclusion of the communist Pathet Lao movement in this new constitution sparked the Laotian Civil War. | Asia |
| French Conquest of Vietnam | | 19th | 1858 | 1885 | The French conquest of Vietnam was a long war fought between the French Empire and the Vietnamese Empire of Đại Nam. The decision to invade Vietnam was made by Napoleon III, and a French desire to control overseas markets, though this was behind the guise of a missionary project. The French Empire, later the French Third Republic, defeated the Vietnamese and Chinese allies. The French imposed a Western-style administration, opening newly claimed territories to economic exploitation. Between 1859 and 1883, all of Vietnam fell under French colonial control. | Asia |
| Thai–Lao Border War | Battle of Ban Romklao | 20th | 1987 | 1988 | The Thai–Lao Border War, also known as the Battle of Ban Romklao, was a conflict between Thai and Lao forces over a disputed border map produced by the French in 1907 that marked the border between Siam and French Indochina. Ownership of certain villages on the edge of Uttaradit Province was left unclear. Thai forces occupied the disputed Ban Romklao before the Lao Army drove them from the village. Conflict continued for weeks until a ceasefire in 1988. The Thai-Lao Joint Boundary Commission was established in 1996 to clarify the boundary and settle ownership of the disputed villages. | Asia |
| Franco-Siamese War | Incident of R.S. 112 | 19th | 1893 | 1893 | The Franco-Siamese War, also known as the Incident of R.S. 112, was between the Kingdom of Siam, present-day Thailand, and the French Third Republic. The French saw an opportunity to get ahead of Britain and extend their power into Laos, controlled by the Siamese, who were vulnerable after the Haw Wars. Siam finally ceded Laos to France, which led to the significant expansion of French Indochina. In 1896 France signed a treaty with Britain, enabling Siam to retain its national independence. It became a valuable buffer state between the French and English in the region until World War II. | Asia |
| Haw Wars | | 19th | 1865 | 1890 | The Haw Wars were a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Siam, present-day Thailand, and bands of expatriate, quasi-military Chinese warriors known as Flag Gangs in Siam and the northern region of Vietnam. Most members of these gangs were fleeing from the suppression of the Taiping rebellion in China. Skilled in guerrilla warfare, the Flag Gangs used different coloured flags, including Red, Yellow, Black and Striped, representing specific causes ravaging northern Laos. The Haw Wars were succeeded by the Franco-Siamese War in 1893. | Asia |
| Battle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút | Trận Rạch Gầm – Xoài Mút | 18th | 1784 | 1785 | The Battle of Rạch Gầm-Xoài Mút, also known as Trận Rạch Gầm – Xoài Mút in Vietnamese, was a conflict fought between the Vietnamese Tây Sơn forces and an army of Siam in present-day southern Vietnam. It is considered one of the greatest victories in Vietnamese history, as the Tây Sơn forces succeeded in a near annihilated of the Siamese army. A large historical monument commemorating the battle was built in the heart of Vietnam and is now one of the great attractions in Vietnam. | Asia |
| Lê-Mạc War | Chiến tranh Lê-Mạc; Hán tự | 16th | 1533 | 1677 | The Lê-Mạc War, also known as Chiến tranh Lê-Mạc; Hán tự in Vietnamese, was a civil war between two Vietnamese dynasties, the Mạc and Revival Lê, which took place during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period of Vietnamese history. The conflict began when Lê Ninh, the 13th emperor of the Later Lê dynasty and the first of the Revival Lê dynasty, sought the throne back from the Mac Dynasty, who had usurped it in 1527. His subsequent enthronement marked the return to power of the Later Lê dynasty. | Asia |
| Siamese-Vietnamese War (1771–1773) | | 18th | 1771 | 1773 | The Siamese-Vietnamese War of 1771–1773 was a war between the Nguyễn Lords of Cochinchina, Southern Vietnam and Siam, present-day Thailand, of the Thonburi Period, in the reign of King Taksin. Cambodia was also involved in this war as the Hà Tiên polity were staunch allies of the Nguyen Lord. The war had started in Hà Tiên, as the Siamese wanted control of the prosperous port city, which has historically switched allegiance between Cambodia and Vietnam. The war resulted in a Siamese victory. | Asia |
| Siamese-Vietnamese War (1831–1834) | | 19th | 1831 | 1834 | The Siamese-Vietnamese War of 1831–1834 was between Siam, present-day Thailand, and the Vietnamese under the Nguyen dynasty. Both Siam and Vietnam emerged as the primary powers in Indochina. Siam, intent on conquering Cambodia and southern Vietnam, defeated the Khmer Army at the Battle of Kompong Cham before being overcome by the armies of the Nguyễn dynasty. The outbreak of a general uprising in Cambodia and Laos forced the Siamese withdrawal, leaving Vietnam victorious, and annexed the eastern Cambodian province of Tây Thành into its territory. | Asia |
| Siamese-Vietnamese War (1841–1845) | Chiến tranh Việt–Xiêm | 19th | 1841 | 1845 | The Siamese-Vietnamese War of 1841–1845, also known as Chiến tranh Việt–Xiêm in Vietnamese, was fought between the Rattanakosin Kingdom of Siam, present-day Thailand, allied with Khmer anti-Vietnamese rebels against the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty. Khmer rebels were unhappy that the Vietnamese had installed a puppet queen to rule Cambodia, allied with Siam to fight against Vietnamese rule. After four years of warfare, both parties agreed to compromise and placed Cambodia under joint rule. | Asia |
| Yên Thế Insurrection | Khởi nghĩa Yên Thế | 19th, 20th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Yên Thế Insurrection, also known as Khởi nghĩa Yên Thế in Vietnamese, was a 25 year-long uprising in the Yên Thế Mountains in the northern Tonkin region of Vietnam. The conflict was led by the popular Hoàng Hoa Thám, a Vietnamese feudal lord of Yên Thế, against French rule and the collaborative position of the Nguyễn dynasty. As the French Protectorate established under French colonial rule consolidated control in the region, Đề-Thám’s violent anti-French insurrection forced the French to make peace, ceding some administrations to Đề-Thám’s control. | Asia |
| Cần Vương Rebellion | | 19th | 1885 | Date and year unknown | The Cần Vương Rebellion was a large-scale Vietnamese uprising against French colonial rule. The objective was to expel the French and reinstate an independent Vietnam, with the Hàm Nghi Emperor as its leader. The insurgency consisted of multiple attacks on French troops by regional leaders in their provinces rather than a coordinated national attack formation which allowed the French to recover very quickly from their initial defeat and crush the rebellion, symbolising the end of the traditional Nguyen Dynasty. | Asia |
| Thái Nguyên Uprising | Khởi nghĩa Thái Nguyên | 20th | 1917 | 1918 | The Thái Nguyên Uprising, also known as Khởi nghĩa Thái Nguyên in Vietnamese, has been recorded as one of the most destructive and largest anti-French rebellions in French Indochina, present-day Vietnam. The uprising was different to earlier conflicts in the same period as this brought together political prisoners, outlaws and prison guards from over thirty provinces to mutiny at the largest prison in the region, the Thai Nguyen Penitentiary. Although initially successful, French forces quickly suppressed the uprising. | Asia |
| Peach Tree War | | 17th | 15 September 1655 | 15 September 1655 | The Peach Tree War was an attack on New Netherland settlements by the Susquehannock people and Native American tribes, driven by the Dutch reconquest of New Sweden along the lower reaches of the Delaware River. The Susquehannock were trading partners and allies of the Swedes. The Dutch sought to expand their settlements and trade. The Susquehannock waged war in response to their claim to the region. The war ended with the exchange of hostages held for ransom and the Dutch repurchasing settlement rights whilst forced to garrison in Fort Amsterdam. | North America |
| Esopus Wars | | 17th | 1659 | 1663 | The Esopus Wars were a series of conflicts between Dutch settlers and the Indigenous Esopus tribe in the Hudson Valley. The Dutch saw the Esopus tribe as a threat to their land and resources. The Esopus tribe saw the Dutch as invaders and fought back in self-defence, resulting in raids lasting several years. Tensions remained uneasy until 1664. The Dutch ceded New Netherland to the English, who redrew the boundaries of Indian territory, forbidding further settlement on Indian lands without payment and mutual agreement. The new treaty established safe passage for settlers and Indians. | North America |
| King Philip's War | Metacom's Rebellion | 17th | 1675 | 1678 | King Philip's War, also known as Metacom's Rebellion, was a conflict between the Wampanoag tribe and the English colonies in New England. The Wampanoags saw the growing English presence as a threat to their land and way of life and launched a series of attacks in response. The English colonies saw the Wampanoags as violent and dangerous and responded with military force. Both sides suffered heavy casualties and the war caused widespread destruction throughout the region. The war continued until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in 1678. | North America |
| Treaty of Casco | | 17th | 1678 | | The Treaty of Casco ended the conflict between the Wabanaki Confederacy and English Settlers. The Wabanaki Confederacy consisted of several Algonquin tribes, including the Penobscots, who felt threatened by the rapid expansion of colonists into their lands. English settlers paid rent to the Penobscots, returned confiscated farmland and agreed to respect the Penobscots' land rights. Confrontations continued as English settlers refused to abide. The second Treaty of Casco in 1703, initiated by a member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was unsuccessful in restoring peace. | North America |
| Tuscarora War | | 18th | 1711 | 1715 | The Tuscarora War was a conflict in North Carolina between the Tuscarora people and English settlers. The Tuscarora, Indigenous to the area, saw themselves as defending their land and way of life from the encroachments of the settlers. They launched attacks, leading to a full-scale war between the Tuscarora and the English. The settlers saw the Tuscarora as violent and dangerous and sought to secure their own safety and territorial interests. The war ended with many of the defeated Tuscarora migrating to New York. | North America |
| Fox Wars | | 18th | 1712 | 1733 | The Fox Wars happened between the Native American Meskwaki (Fox) people and the French. The Fox saw the French as a threat to their land and resources and sought to defend their sovereignty. The French saw the Fox as a hindrance to their expansion plans and sought to remove them from their territory. The Fox wars were brutal and resulted in significant loss of life on both sides. Eventually, The Fox were forced to surrender, losing much of their land and resources to the French. The few Fox survivors returned to Wisconsin and sought refuge among the Sauk near Green Bay. | North America |
| Yamasee War | | 18th | 1715 | 1717 | The Yamasee War was a conflict between the British colonies of South Carolina and the Yamasee Native American tribes. The Yamasee felt the British were taking advantage of their resources and territory, so they formed a coalition with other tribes to attack the British settlements. The British were caught off guard and suffered many losses before reinforcements arrived. The British retaliated with a brutal campaign against the Native American tribes, resulting in widespread destruction and forced relocation of the Yamasee people. | North America |
| Treaty of Savannah | | 18th | 1733 | | The Treaty of Savannah was signed in 1733, ending the conflict between the Creek and Yamasee tribes and the British colonies of Georgia and South Carolina. The Creek and Yamasee saw the treaty as a betrayal, as they had expected to receive land in return for their help fighting the Spanish and their allies. The British saw the treaty as a necessary step to secure their borders and control trade in the region. The treaty resulted in the Creek and Yamasee losing their traditional lands and forced to move westward. | North America |
| Chickasaw Wars | | 18th | 1721 | 1763 | The Chickasaw Wars were a series of conflicts between the Indigenous Chickasaw allied with the British against the French and their ally tribes. The Chickasaw believed they were defending their ancestral lands and way of life. The French and British sought to establish a dominant presence. The Chickasaw successfully maintained their position, much to the eventual benefit of the British. The wars ended when the French ceded New France to the British in 1763 under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. | North America |
| Father Le Loutre's War | Mi'kmaq War | 18th | 1749 | 1755 | Father Le Loutre's War, also known as the Mi'kmaq War, was a conflict that took place between the British and French settlers in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. The French, led by Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, sought to maintain their presence and influence in the region, while the British aimed to assert their sovereignty. The war saw acts of violence and propaganda from both sides, including the burning of villages, and the manipulation of Indigenous tribes. The conflict ended with the British victorious and the eventual expulsion of the French Acadians from the region. | North America |
| Anglo-Cherokee War | Cherokee Uprising | 18th | 1758 | 1761 | The Anglo-Cherokee War, also known as the Cherokee Uprising, was a conflict between the British colonies in North America and the Cherokee nation. The British wanted to assert control and secure the frontier against French expansion. The Cherokee allied with the British on and off for many years. The war resulted in the defeat of the Cherokee and the loss of much of their land, leading to forced relocation and heightened tensions between the Cherokee and European settlers. The war was a seminal moment in the relationship between Native American tribes and European colonisers. | North America |
| Lord Dunmore's War | | 18th | 1774 | 1774 | Lord Dunmore's War was a conflict in 1774 between the Shawnee and Mingo Native American tribes and Virginia colonial settlers led by Lord Dunmore, the governor of Virginia. The settlers were expanding into Native American territory, leading to tensions and violence. The Native American tribes banded together to defend their lands and fought against the settlers in several battles. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, in which the Native American tribes ceded some of their lands to the settlers. | North America |
| Treaty of Camp Charlotte | | 18th | 1774 | | The Treaty of Camp Charlotte was signed by the Shawnee and Mingo tribes and colonial leaders in what is now Virginia. The treaty aimed to promote peaceful relations between the Native American tribes and colonists and to prevent further conflict between the two groups. The agreement recognised the land ownership rights of the Shawnee and Mingo tribes and established a boundary line between the colonial settlements and Native American lands. Despite the treaty, the tensions between colonists and Native American tribes continued to escalate in the following years. | North America |
| Cherokee–American Wars | Chickamauga Wars | 18th | 1776 | 1794 | The Cherokee–American wars, also known as the Chickamauga Wars, were a series of violent confrontations between the Cherokee Nation and the newly formed United States. From the Cherokee perspective, the conflict was about protecting their ancestral lands and way of life from the expanding American settlements. On the American side, the wars were a necessary measure to secure their frontier and expand their territory. Both sides suffered significant casualties, with the Cherokee forced to cede much of their land in the Treaty of Holston in 1791. | North America |
| Treaty of Holston | | 18th | 1791 | | The Treaty of Holston marked a significant turning point in the relationship between the United States and the Cherokee Nation. For the United States, the treaty marked an important step towards securing the western frontier and establishing American sovereignty over the region. However, the treaty represented a major surrender of the Cherokee Nation’s ancestral lands and a significant loss. Despite their reservations, the Cherokee signed the treaty in the hopes of preserving peace and stability in the region. Ultimately, the Treaty of Holston set the stage for further conflict. | North America |
| Northwest Indian War | Little Turtle's War | 18th | 1785 | 1795 | The Northwest Indian War, or Little Turtle's War, is considered by some the first of the American Indian Wars. The conflict was between the United States and Native American tribes for control of Northwest Territory. The United States were eager to expand their territory. The Native American tribes, including the Miami, Shawnee, and Delaware, opposed the United States' encroachment on their lands and tried to defend their territory. A series of violent battles and raids ensued. After the end of hostilities, many United States settlers migrated to the Northwest Territory. | North America |
| Treaty of Greenville | | 18th | 1795 | | The Treaty of Greenville marked the end of a conflict between Native American tribes in the Ohio Country and the United States government. For the Native American tribes, the treaty was seen as a surrender of their land rights as they were forced to cede vast areas to the United States in exchange for government protection and the promise of annual payments. The treaty allowed for the expansion of American settlements and commerce in the region, but at the cost of Native American sovereignty and cultural heritage. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Jackson | Treaty with the Creeks | 19th | 1814 | | The Treaty of Fort Jackson, or Treaty with the Creeks, was between the United States of America and the Creek Indian Nation. The treaty marked the end of the Creek Indian War and established the boundaries between the Creek Nation and the newly formed United States. The treaty granted the Creek Nation the right to retain their lands and sovereignty and ensured that they would not interfere with the expansion of the United States. Under the treaty, the Creek Nation ceded nearly 22 million acres in present-day Alabama and Georgia to the United States. | North America |
| Peoria War | | 19th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Peoria War was a conflict between Native American tribes and the United States. The Native American tribes were led by the famous warrior Tecumseh, who was fighting against US expansion. The conflict started with several skirmishes and attacks on both sides, and eventually escalated into a full-blown war. The Peoria War was a brutal conflict that lasted several months and resulted in numerous casualties on both sides. Despite their best efforts, Tecumseh and his followers were ultimately defeated, and the US gained control over the territory. | North America |
| Creek War | Red Stick War | 19th | 1813 | 1814 | The Creek War, also known as the Red Stick War, was a conflict between opposing Creek Native American factions, the United States and European powers. The Creek Nation was divided on whether to support the British or the Americans. The Red Sticks, allied with the British, sought to stop American expansion into their territory. The US quickly joined the war against the Red Sticks, turning the civil war into a military campaign designed to destroy Creek power. Creek militancy was a response to increasing United States cultural and territorial encroachment into their traditional lands. | North America |
| Adams–Onís Treaty | Florida Purchase Treaty | 19th | 1819 | | The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, also known as the Florida Purchase Treaty, was an agreement between the United States and Spain that defined the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. Spain ceded Florida and renounced the Oregon Country in exchange for recognition of Spanish sovereignty over Texas. This treaty helped settle the conflict between the two nations over territory and paved the way for the expansion of the United States into the western frontier. | North America |
| Arikara War | | 19th | 1823 | 1823 | The Arikara War was a conflict between the Arikara Native American tribe, the United States and their allies, the Dakota Sioux people. It is noted as the first Plains Indian War. The Arikara saw traders as a threat to their land and resources. The American side saw the Arikara as a threat to their fur trading operations and the safety of their employees. The conflict resulted in several battles, and the Arikara were forced to sign a peace treaty. Despite the treaty, the tensions between the two sides continued for several years. | North America |
| Treaty With The Arikara Tribe | | 19th | 1825 | | The Treaty with The Arikara Tribe was an agreement between the United States government and the Arikara Native American tribe. The treaty aimed to secure peaceful relations between the two entities and establish a trade system. It also established a reservation for the Arikara tribe, thereby limiting their hunting grounds and regulating the trade of goods. This treaty was significant as it set a precedent for future treaties between the US government and other Native American tribes. | North America |
| Winnebago War | | 19th | 1827 | 1827 | The Winnebago War was a conflict between the Native American Winnebago tribe and American settlers in Wisconsin. The Winnebago, who had been forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the Midwest, felt that the settlers were encroaching on their territory and disrupting their way of life. In response, they staged an uprising, attacking settlements and causing fear among the settlers. Eventually, the US government sent military forces to put down the uprising and restore order, but tensions between the two groups remained high. | North America |
| First Treaty of Prairie du Chien | | 19th | 1825 | | The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien was signed in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, between the United States government and the tribes of the Upper Mississippi River. This treaty established the boundaries between the Native American tribes and the United States, securing land rights and defining the borders of their respective territories. The treaty also granted the Native American tribes the right to hunt and fish on their ancestral lands and ensure protection for their traders and other rights to engage in commerce. | North America |
| Second Creek War | | 19th | 1836 | 1836 | The Second Creek War was a conflict between Alabama and Georgia militias and a faction of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. The Creek Nation consisted of various Native American tribes forced to cede their lands in Georgia and Alabama to the United States. Lower Creek leaders had become outraged over the illegal influx of white settlers onto their lands. US officials described the violence as a "war" to argue that the Creeks were forfeiting their prior treaty rights established in the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832. | North America |
| Fort Parker Massacre | | 19th | 1836 | Date and year unknown | The Fort Parker massacre took place in present-day Texas. Several Native American tribes attacked the fort, killing several settlers and kidnapping five women and children. The settlers saw the attack as a ruthless act of violence and terror and the subsequent capture of their loved ones as a cruel injustice. The Indigenous tribes saw the attack as a necessary defence against the continued encroachment of white settlers on their land and resources. This conflict highlights the tensions between the settlers and Indigenous people in the early days of American expansion. | North America |
| Council House Fight | Council House Massacre | 19th | 1840 | 1840 | The Council House Fight, or Council House Massacre, was a violent conflict between the Comanche tribe and Texas settlers in San Antonio. The Comanche leaders, including Chief Buffalo Hump, had come to negotiate a peace treaty with the Texans, but tensions rose when the Texans attempted to arrest one of the Comanche leaders. In response, the Comanche warriors drew their weapons, resulting in a bloody fight that left several Texans and Comanche dead. The Council House Fight was a turning point in the relationship between Texas settlers and the Comanche and set the stage for further conflict. | North America |
| Battle of Plum Creek | | 19th | 1840 | 1840 | The Battle of Plum Creek was a confrontation between the Comanche tribe and the Texas Rangers allied with the Tonkawa and militia. Following the Council House Fight, the Comanche sought to defend their territory and resources, while the Rangers sought to control the Comanche raids on settlements in the region. Chief Buffalo Hump continued to raid white settlements until 1844 when he negotiated peace while European settlers took over the former Comanche land. | North America |
| Battle of Antelope Hills | Battle of Little Robe Creek | 19th | 12 May 1858 | 12 May 1858 | The Battle of Antelope Hills, also known as the Battle of Little Robe Creek, was a conflict between the Comanche and Tonkawa tribes and the Texas Rangers. The Comanche and Tonkawa tribes had been attacking settlers expanding into the Comanche homeland. The Rangers successfully fought off the tribes and captured several of their leaders. The Battle of Little Robe Creek marked a turning point in the fight against Native American raids in Texas and was a significant escalation of the Indian Wars. It also established the Rangers as a formidable force in the region. | North America |
| Osage War | | 19th | 1837 | Date and year unknown | The Osage War was a conflict between the Osage tribe and the United States government over control of land in present-day Missouri. The Osage had previously been removed from their ancestral lands in Kansas and were promised the land they were currently occupying in Missouri as their permanent home. However, white settlers continued to expand on their territory, leading to tension and conflict. The war ended with the Treaty of 1839, which resulted in the Osage ceding more land to the government. | North America |
| Treaty of 1839 | | 19th | 1839 | | The Treaty of 1839 was an agreement between the United States government and the Osage Native American tribe. The treaty granted the Osage a reservation of land which was to be their permanent home. The treaty also allowed the Osage to retain hunting and fishing rights on their former lands and provided for an annual payment from the US government. In exchange, the Osage agreed to give up their claims to other lands and to allow the government to build roads and establish military posts within their reservation. | North America |
| Cayuse War | | 19th | 1847 | 1855 | The Cayuse War was a conflict in the Pacific Northwest. The war was between the Cayuse Indians and the United States government. In addition to cultural misunderstandings and mutual hostilities, the Cayuse were angry at the influx of settlers, whom they believed were destroying their way of life. For instance, the Cayuse believed that to plough the ground was to desecrate the spirit of the Earth. The settlers, as agriculturalists, naturally did not agree. Several skirmishes and massacres happened before the Cayuse eventually surrendered and ceded most of their tribal lands. | North America |
| Whitman Massacre | Walla Walla Massacre | 19th | 1847 | 1847 | The Whitman massacre, also known as the Walla Walla massacre, was a violent attack on the Whitman Mission. The mission was run by Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife Narcissa, who had been living among the Cayuse tribe for several years, providing medical care and education. The massacre was triggered by a measles epidemic that broke out among the Cayuse, killing many of them. Some members of the tribe believed that the Whitmans were responsible for the epidemic and decided to attack the mission, killing the Whitmans and 11 other people. The massacre marked the beginning of the Cayuse War. | North America |
| Jicarilla War | | 19th | 1849 | 1855 | The Jicarilla War was a conflict between the Jicarilla Apache tribe and the United States government, which was expanding into their territory in northern New Mexico. The Jicarilla had long been raiding American settlements, and tensions reached a boiling point when a group of Jicarilla warriors attacked and killed a group of American traders. Ultimately, the war resulted in the defeat of the Jicarilla, who were forced to surrender and sign a treaty ceding much of their land to the United States. | North America |
| Battle at Fort Utah | Provo War | 19th | 1849 | 1850 | The Battle at Fort Utah, also known as the Provo War, occurred in Utah County, Utah Territory. The conflict arose due to tensions between the Ute people and Mormon settlers who had moved west to escape religious discrimination. The Utes felt that the settlers were encroaching on their traditional hunting grounds and taking resources essential for their survival. The Utes launched an attack on the fort, resulting in a three-day battle that claimed the lives of several people on both sides. The battle marked the start of a complicated relationship between the Utes and the Mormon settlers. | North America |
| Yuma War | | 19th | 1850 | 1853 | The Yuma War was a conflict that occurred in the Colorado River region of the United States. The war was between the Quechan people, also known as the Yuma, and the United States Army. The primary motivation for the war was control of the Colorado River and the resources it provided. The war ended with the Quechan people forcibly relocated to a reservation and signing a peace treaty in the summer of 1853, which sparked a short war between the Yuma and the Cocopah. | North America |
| Walker War | Wakara's War | 19th | 1853 | 1854 | The Walkers War, also known as Wakara's War, was a conflict between the Ute Native Americans and the Mormon settlers in Utah. The war was characterised by several disputes and skirmishes over property and land. The Ute tribe was motivated to go to war after an increase in the presence of Mormon settlers on their lands. The Mormon settlers wanted to establish their religious community in the area. They believed their divinely inspired mission to build a Zion community would ultimately benefit the Ute tribe. | North America |
| Glanton Massacre | | 19th | 1850 | 1850 | The Glanton Massacre occurred when a band of Quechans killed and scalped the Glanton organisation, consequential of the brutal murders carried out by the group of mercenaries led by John Joel Glanton. Mexican authorities hired the organisation to eliminate troublesome Native Americans in the southwestern United States for bounties, including men, women, and children. They became so ruthless that they were declared outlaws by the authorities who hired them and forced them to flee to Arizona. | North America |
| Mariposa War | Yosemite Indian War | 19th | 1850 | 1851 | The Mariposa War, also known as the Yosemite Indian War, was a conflict that occurred in California, pitting the Mariposa Battalion of American miners against the Indigenous people of the region, particularly the Southern Sierra Miwok. The war was driven by the American's desire for land and resources. Miners searching for gold forced Native Americans off their historic lands and others into service in the mines. The conflict resulted in the defeat of the Indigenous people and their displacement from their traditional lands. | North America |
| Grattan Massacre | | 19th | 19 August 1854 | 19 August 1854 | The Grattan Massacre was a conflict between the United States Army and the Brulé, a subculture of the Lakota Sioux people. It is considered the start of the First Sioux War. A detachment led by lieutenant John Grattan confronted the Brulé Lakota chief near Fort Laramie, Wyoming, demanding the arrest of an Indian man accused of killing a cow from a Mormon wagon train. The situation quickly escalated when the chief, known as Conquering Bear, was shot. The Brulé then attacked and killed all 29 soldiers and lieutenant Grattan. | North America |
| Sioux Wars | | 19th | 1854 | 1891 | The Sioux Wars were a series of conflicts between the Sioux and the United States government. From the Lakota perspective, these wars were a struggle to protect their traditional way of life and their ancestral lands, which were encroached upon by white settlers. They fought to defend their people and culture, including their spiritual practices and the sacred Black Hills. The US government wished to expand westward and assert authority over Native American tribes. The conflicts were often brutal and resulted in significant loss of life on both sides. | North America |
| Klickitat War | | 19th | 1855 | 1855 | The Klickitat War was a conflict between the Klickitat tribe and the United States government in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Settlers encroached along the Columbia River where the Klickitat and other tribes of the Yakama lived. The governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, coerced Native American tribes into signing treaties that ceded most of their lands and rights. When met with resistance from the tribes, he used his troops to pacify the region into submission. The majority of the Yakama were forcibly relocated to the Yakama Indian Reservation. | North America |
| Rogue River Wars | | 19th | 1855 | 1856 | The Rogue River Wars were a series of skirmishes fought by the United States Army and local militias against Native American tribes in the Rogue River Valley of southern Oregon. Settlers moved to the region, hoping to prosper from gold and pelts. The ongoing conflicts stemmed from tensions over land ownership, cultural differences, and the mistreatment of Native Americans by settlers and the US government. The US Army eventually defeated the Native American tribes and forced them onto reservations, including the Siletz Reservation. | North America |
| Seminole Wars | Florida Wars | 19th | 1817, 1835, 1855, | 1818, 1842, 1858 | The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, consisted of three major conflicts between the United States and the Seminoles. The first phase began over efforts from US authorities to recapture Black slaves living among Seminole bands. Following this, the Seminoles resisted the United States government's demands that they leave the region under the Indian Removal Act. The final phase of the war resulted from renewed efforts to track down the Seminole remnant remaining in Florida. It ended with the United States paying the most resistant band of refugees to go West. | North America |
| Yakima War | | 19th | 1855 | 1858 | The Yakima War was a conflict between the United States and the Yakama tribe of the Pacific Northwest. The Yakama were angered by the encroachment of white settlers, moving to their territory driven by the widely publicised discovery of gold. The Yakama were also frustrated by the US government's attempts to force them onto reservations and failure to uphold treaty agreements. The Yakama united with the Walla Walla and Cayuse tribes in resistance, resulting in several battles and massacres before the tribes were defeated and forced onto reservations. | North America |
| Cascades Massacre | | 19th | 26 March 1856 | 26 March 1856 | The Cascades Massacre was when a coalition of tribes launched an attack against white soldiers and settlers, angered over broken treaties and in an attempt to repel settlers from their lands. Many settlers sought cheap farming in the west as the population of the east boomed whilst available land dwindled. The attacking native warriors consisted of Yakama, Klickitat, and Cascades tribes, now identified as Wasco tribes. The attack resulted in the deaths of 14 settlers and three US soldiers. In response, the United States dispatched reinforcements to prevent further attacks. | North America |
| Puget Sound War | | 19th | 1855 | 1865 | The Puget Sound War was a conflict between the United States government and the native tribes of the Puget Sound region in present-day Washington state. The war began with tensions between the two groups over land rights and the imposition of the Treaty of Point Elliott, which ceded tribal lands to the US government. The conflict consisted of several violent clashes and atrocities committed by both sides, including the massacre at White River. The war ended with the defeat of the native tribes and their forced relocation. | North America |
| Treaty of Point Elliott | | 19th | 22 Janurary 1855 | | The Treaty of Point Elliott of 1855 was a land settlement treaty between the United States government and Native American tribes of the Puget Sound region in the Washington Territory. It was signed on January 22, 1855, and ratified in 1859. The signatories included Chief Seattle, Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens, and several Native American tribes. Of the 100 signatures, 82 were by Indian chiefs, headmen, and delegates. The treaty established reservations and fishing rights for some tribes but did not end the fighting that continued in the region. | North America |
| Klamath War | Klamath River Massacres | 19th | 1855 | 1855 | The Klamath War, also known as the Klamath River Massacres, was a conflict between local settlers and Yurok and Karok Native American tribes in Klamath County, California. The war began from a series of incidents and a rumour of an Indian uprising against the miners along the Klamath River. The settlers demanded that the Native Americans be disarmed and expelled from the county, leading to hostilities between them and a group of Native Americans known as the "Red Caps." The conflict resulted in the deaths of many Native people and is considered part of the California Genocide. | North America |
| Tintic War | | 19th | 1856 | 1856 | The Tintic War was a series of skirmishes between settlers and the Ute tribe in Utah's Tintic and Cedar Valleys. Displaced from their land and struggling to survive, the Utes resorted to stealing from the settlers who had established their new lives on the Ute’s traditional lands. Agriculture and livestock enterprises depleted the land of resources essential to the Ute’s ways of living. The war ended with federal government intervention, relocating the Utes to the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. Unresolved land issues persisted after World War II, leading to compensation claims. | North America |
| Tule River War | | 19th | 1856 | 1856 | The Tule River War of 1856 was a six-week conflict between American settlers, a detachment of the US Army, and the Yokuts in the southern San Joaquin Valley. The conflict was the consequence of American miners encroaching onto Indigenous lands. Although the US drafted a treaty in 1851 defining a proposed reservation for the local tribes, the Senate failed to ratify it. Throughout the 1850s, settler-led militias attacked Native American villages, and in retaliation, Native Americans raided cattle and horses. | North America |
| Coeur d'Alene War | Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War | 19th | 1858 | 1858 | The Coeur d'Alene War, also known as the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War, was the second phase of the Yakima War. The conflict was between the United States Army and allied Native American tribes, including the Skitswish, Kalispell, Spokane, Palouse, and Northern Paiute. The war occurred due to tensions over the US government’s broken promises and white settlement in tribal lands. Following the Battle of Four Lakes and the Battle of Spokane Plains, the Chiefs of the Skitswish tribe sent a Skitswish member to Colonel George Wright's camp to present their peace proposal. | North America |
| Mendocino War | | 19th | 1859 | 1860 | The Mendocino War was a conflict between the Yuki tribe and white settlers in Mendocino County, California. It was caused by settler intrusion and slave raids on native lands, resulting in native retaliation. The Eel River Rangers, led by Walter S. Jarboe, raided the countryside to remove the natives from settler territory and move them onto the Nome Cult Farm. They killed hundreds of warriors and countless women and children in the process. The conflict has been labelled a genocide by historians. Tensions left unresolved from this conflict would lead to the Round Valley War. | North America |
| Fraser Canyon War | | 19th | 1858 | 1858 | The Fraser Canyon War, also known as the Fraser River War, was a conflict between the Nlaka'pamux and white miners during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in the newly declared Colony of British Columbia. Driven by a hunger for gold and a sense of entitlement to Indigenous territories and resources, American miners attacked the Nlaka’pamux communities. The war ended relatively peacefully when the two sides called a truce. Under threat of further violence, the Nlaka’pamux agreed to grant miners access to their territories and resources, bringing the immediate conflict to a close. | North America |
| Bald Hills War | | 19th | 1858 | 1864 | The Bald Hills War was fought by the California Militia, California Volunteers, and the US Army against various Native American tribes. Taking place in Mendocino, Trinity, Humboldt, Klamath, and Del Norte counties, it was part of the broader effort to unseat the native population. The ongoing conflict targeted the Chilula, Lassik, Hupa, Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone tribes, and many more. Most of the tribes were forced to make peace by August 1864. California Volunteers manned local garrisons until the Civil War's end in 1865. | North America |
| Mohave War | | 19th | 1858 | 1859 | The Mohave War was a conflict between the Mohave people and American settlers passing through their land during the California Gold Rush. The hope of striking rich by mining gold continued to attract settlers to the West for decades. The influx of migrants passing through the Mohave's traditional lands, combined with simple misunderstandings, led to conflict. Fort Mohave was established as a base for the US Army against the Mohave, leading to the Mohave surrendering due to the superior weaponry and tactics of the Americans. A peace treaty was signed in 1859, ending the Mohave's opposition. | North America |
| Paiute War | Pyramid Lake War | 19th | 1860 | 1860 | The Paiute War, also known as the Pyramid Lake War, occurred in present-day Nevada. Northern Paiutes, Shoshone, and Bannock tribes fought against settlers and the US military. Preceding 1860, the Paiutes lived in relative peace with settlers. Nonetheless, they resented the encroachment into their territory. After escalating tension, two major conflicts resulted in the deaths of numerous settlers and Indigenous people. Skirmishes and raids continued until a ceasefire was reached in August 1860, but no treaty was signed. | North America |
| Yavapai Wars | Tonto Wars | 19th | 1861 | 1875 | The Yavapai Wars, also known as the Tonto Wars, were conflicts between Yavapai and Tonto tribes against the United States in Arizona Territory. The conflicts were sparked by tensions over land use, as settlers encroached on Yavapai territory and disrupted traditional hunting and gathering practices. The Yavapai were viewed as Western Apache due to their close connection with tribes like Tonto and Pinal. In 1875, the war ended with Yavapai's expulsion from the Camp Verde Reservation to San Carlos, known as Exodus Day. | North America |
| Owens Valley War | | 19th | 1862 | 1863 | The Owens Valley War occurred from 1862 to 1863 between California Volunteers, settlers, and the Owens Valley Paiutes, allied with the Shoshone and Kawaiisu tribes. The conflict arose due to heavy snowfall and flooding during the winter of 1861-1862, which caused the local Paiute to suffer significant loss of game, and competition with cattle driven into the valley. This led to tension between the Paiute and cattlemen, ultimately resulting in the removal of many Native Californians to Fort Tejon in 1863 and minor hostilities continuing until 1867. | North America |
| Dakota War of 1862 | Sioux Uprising | 19th | 1862 | 1862 | The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, was a conflict between the United States and the Dakota tribe. They were forced by the United States to cede large tracts of land, causing tensions to rise. Crop failure in 1861, followed by a harsh winter and depletion of wild game, led to starvation and severe hardship for the Dakota. Following this, Dakota warriors attacked hundreds of settlers, causing thousands to flee. This led to the largest one-day mass execution in American history and the abolition of eastern Dakota and Ho-Chunk reservations in Minnesota. | North America |
| Hualapai War | Walapai War | 19th | 1865 | 1870 | The Hualapai War, also known as the Walapai War, was fought between the Hualapai Native Americans and the United States in Arizona Territory. Tensions over the encroachment of Native American lands due to the gold rush settlement led to guerrilla warfare, with the Yavapai participating on the side of the Hualapai. Diseases forced most of the Hualapais to surrender in 1869, though some skirmishing continued for two more years. In 1882, the Hualapai relocated to a 900,000-acre reservation. An estimated one-third of the Hualapai population was lost between 1865 and 1870. | North America |
| Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro | | 21st | 27 March 2014 | | The Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro is a peace agreement signed between the Government of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in the south of the country. Talks started in 1997, mediated first by Malaysia and later by an International Contact Group, which is a hybrid peace process support body. Under the agreement, the Philippine government committed to establishing the autonomy of Bangsamoro. In exchange, the Islamic separatists decommissioned its armed wing, the Bangsamoro Islamic Armed Forces. | Asia |
| 1976 Tripoli Agreement | | 20th | 23 December 1976 | | The 1976 Tripoli Agreement was signed by the Government of the Philippines, under Ferdinand Marcos and the Moro National Liberation Front in Tripoli, Libya. The agreement defined autonomous administrative divisions in southern Philippine areas of Basilan, Palawan and Sulu for Muslims. This included a ceasefire, and establishment of an autonomous government led by the MNLF with its own economic system, special security forces and judicial system. Marcos changed the Treaty, creating two autonomous regions instead of one, angering voters, who rallied to resume guerrilla warfare. | Asia |
| Jeddah Accord | | 20th | 3-4 January 1987 | | The Jeddah Accord was signed in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia by the Government of the Philippines and the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). The Accord was a new Agreement to facilitate the discussion of a proposed full autonomy for areas in the southern Philippines, including Mindanao, Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Palawan, as had been put forward in the previous 1976 Tripoli Agreement by the MILF. The Jeddah Accord was a means to bring to an end the hostilities between the MNLF and Philippine government and resume the talks that would lead to a new peace pact. | Asia |
| 1996 Final Peace Agreement | Jakarta Accord | 20th | 2 September 1996 | | The 1996 Final Peace Agreement, also known as the Jakarta Accord, was signed by the Philippines and the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). This accord was the result of four years of peace talks between the Philippine President Fidel V. Ramos and Nur Misuari, MNLF’s leader. It stipulated the terms to fully implement the 1976 Tripoli Agreement, which had previously failed. The Accord was divided into two phases, with Indonesia as a member of ASEAN to assume responsibility for implementing the ceasefire. The Agreement earned Ramos and Misuari the 1997 Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize. | Asia |
| Korean War | Fatherland Liberation War | 20th | 25 June 1950 | 27 July 1953 (de facto date) but still ongoing | The Korean War, also known as the Fatherland Liberation War and by other names, was fought between North Korea and South Korea when the former invaded the latter to unify Korea under the communist North Korean regime. North Korea was supported by China and the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the United States and allied countries. Millions of Koreans and Chinese died, with over 100,000 casualties for the UN forces involved. The fighting ended with an armistice and a new border drawn between North and South Korea called the demilitarised zone but technically both nations are still at war. | Asia |
| Korean DMZ Conflict | Second Korean War | 20th | 5 October 1966 | 3 December 1969 | The Korean DMZ Conflict, also known as the Second Korean War, was a series of low-level armed conflicts between North Korean forces and the allied forces of South Korea and the United States. It took place in the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ),a border barrier that runs across the Korean Peninsula, dividing it roughly in half, and the meeting point for negotiations between both nations. The US instigated the conflict by breaking the armistice agreement of the Korean War and deploying its atomic missiles to South Korea. North Korea denounced this as an attempt to turn Korea into a US atomic warfare zone. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasions of Korea | Imjin War | 20th | 23 May 1592 | 16 December 1598 | The Japanese Invasions of Korea, also known as the Imjin War, were two separate invasions that happened within seven years between the Toyotomi regime of Japan and the Joseon and Ming dynasties, of Korea and China respectively. Japan invaded the Korean Peninsula with the intent to conquer Korea and China. While initially successful in occupying regions of the Peninsula, the Japanese forces were forced to withdraw following a military stalemate. Joseon forces suffered over one million military and civilian deaths. The Ming forces and Japanese forces suffered significantly less. | Asia |
| Ōei Invasion | Gihae Expedition | 15th | 20 June 1419 | 3 July 1419 | The Ōei Invasion, also known as the Gihae Expedition in Korea, was an invasion launched by the Joseon Dynasty forces against multi-ethnic groups of pirates called the Wokou. The Wokou were a combination of Japanese, Chinese, and Korean with bases on Tsushima Island, in the Tsushima Strait between the Korean Peninsula and Kyushu. Historical records of the invasions differ in Korean and Japanese accounts, with both sides suggesting the negotiations resulted in a Korean withdrawal and the end of Wokou activities in Korea. | Asia |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of Amity | Bingzi Treaty of Amity | 19th | 26 February 1876 | | The Japanese-Korean Treaty of Amity, also known as the Treaty of Ganghwa or the Bingzi Treaty of Amity was signed and agreed by Japan and Korea after the Ganghwa Island incident. Although the treaty stipulated that Korea held its own sovereign power and was an independent nation separate from the Qing dynasty, the treaty was unequal in its terms. The signing forced Korea to open its ports of Busan, Incheon and Wonsan to Japan, as well as grant Japan’s citizens extraterritorial rights. The Treaty made Korea more vulnerable to imperialistic agendas, and later led to Korea’s annexation by Japan. | Asia |
| Ganghwa Island Incident | Unyo Incident | 19th | 20 September 1875 | Date and year unknown | The Ganghwa Island Incident, also known as the Unyo Incident, was an armed conflict between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Kingdom under the Joseon dynasty, in the area of Ganghwa Island (present-day South Korea). Ganghwa Island and the Korean Peninsula had been a site of violent conflicts in the previous decade between various imperial powers, including the Japanese Empire as well as the Russian Empire, French Empire and Chinese Empire. The result ended in a Japanese victory with the Korean defences severely damaged. | Asia |
| French Expedition to Korea | Byeong-in Yangyo | 19th | 11 October 1866 | 22 November 1866 | The French expedition to Korea, also known as the Byeong-in Yangyo, was fought between the Second French Empire and the Joseon dynasty of the Kingdom of Korea. The French attacked Ganghwa Island in retaliation for the murder of seven French Catholic missionaries. The Koreans managed to repel the French attack, keeping French influence in the region at bay. Although this sustained Korea’s isolationism for another decade, the Japanese-Korean Treaty of Amity later forced Korea to open trade with Imperial Japan. | Asia |
| United States Expedition to Korea | Shinmiyangyo | 19th | 1 June 1871 | 3 July 1871 | The United States Expedition to Korea, also known as Shinmiyangyo in Korea, was a military conflict between the United States and the Joseon dynasty of the Kingdom of Korea, which took place in the vicinity of Ganghwa Island. The American military attack was a retaliation for the destruction of their merchant ship SS General Sherman, whose crews were engaged in an illegal attempt to force Korea to open up trade with America. The attack was a failure, resulting in the withdrawal of their forces and Korea maintaining their isolationist position. | Asia |
| Imo Incident | Jingo Incident | 19th | 23 July 1882 | Date and year unknown | The Imo Incident, also known as the Jingo Incident, was a violent uprising in Seoul, Korea involving soldiers of the Joseon Army, of the Kingdom of Korea and the wider Korean population. Violence broke out due to the growing anger amongst unpaid Korean soldiers against King Gojong's increasing support for reform and modernisation, along with his employment of Japanese military advisors in a restructure of the Joseon Army. The incident resulted in China reasserting its dominion over Korea through military presence and direct interference in Korean internal affairs. | Asia |
| Shufeldt Treaty | Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation | 19th, 20th | 22 May 1882 | 29 August 1910 | The Shufeldt Treaty, or the Treaty of Peace, Amity, Commerce and Navigation was the treaty negotiated between the United States and the Joseon dynasty of the Kingdom of Korea. The treaty was signed near present-day Seoul and was the first treaty between Korea and a Western nation. It was also a very unfair treaty for Korea, which while stipulating terms that included mutual friendship and assistance in case of attack, it included a clause that the United States would be the most favoured nation for trade and that American citizens would be granted extraterritorial rights. | Asia |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910 | Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty | 20th | 22 August 1910 | 22 June 1965 | The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1910, also known as the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty, was signed by representatives of the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire. The treaty was the formal annexation of Korea by Japan and followed previous treaties which made Korea a protectorate of Japan and which removed Korean administration over its own internal affairs. The annexation signalled by this treaty ended the existence of the Korean Empire, enabling Japanese occupation of the Korean Peninsula. South and North Korea maintain that the Japan-Korea treaties were illegal and invalid from the start. | Asia |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905 | Eulsa Treaty | 20th | 17 November 1905 | | The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905, also called the Eulsa Treaty, Eulsa Unwilling Treaty, or the Japan-Korea Protectorate Treaty, was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire, making Korea a protectorate of Imperial Japan and depriving Korea of its diplomatic sovereignty. The Treaty was a result of the Japanese empire winning the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and forced the Korean Empire to end all diplomatic representations abroad. It was the basis for the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907, which saw the annexation of Korea in 1910. | Asia |
| Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907 | | 20th | 24 July 1907 | | The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1907 was signed between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire under the Joseon dynasty. Under the previous treaty of 1905, the Korean empire was already a protectorate of Japan. The provisions of this new treaty stipulated that Korea’s administration of internal affairs would be turned over to Japan. This gave Japan full control over all Korean government and policy, and also placed the Korean Army under Japanese control. When the Korean Emperor Gojong sent an envoy to the Hague Conference of World Peace in protest, Japan forced him to abdicate the throne. | Asia |
| Treaty of Shimonoseki | Treaty of Maguan | 19th | 17 April 1895 | | The Treaty of Shimonoseki, also known as the Treaty of Maguan, was signed at the peace conference held after the First Sino-Japanese War. The signatories were the Empire of Japan and Qing Dynasty of Imperial China and superseded the earlier Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty of 1871. The terms stipulated that, along with Chinese economic reparations to Japan, the Qing dynasty would cede Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan and the Penghu islands to Japan. The provisions also recognised the Joseon Dynasty of the Korean Empire as an independent and autonomous nation. | Asia |
| Donghak Peasant Revolution | Tonghak Uprising | 19th | 11 January 1894 | 25 December 1895 | The Donghak Peasant Revolution, also known as the Tonghak Uprising, was an armed peasant rebellion in Korea led by followers of the Donghak religion. Its followers were increasingly opposed to Western influences and called for social reform and equality for all peoples, which the Korean Government heavily opposed, calling for military aid from China to stop the violent uprisings. However, Japan sent in their forces despite not being asked. The rebels eventually laid down their arms to diffuse the situation, but the revolution instigated the first Sino-Japanese War regardless. | Asia |
| Malayan Emergency | Anti-British National Liberation War | 20th | 16 June 1948 | 31 July 1960 | The Malayan Emergency, also called the Anti-British National Liberation War, was fought between the Malayan National Liberation Army and the British Empire and Commonwealth. Aligned with imperialist interests, the incentive to call this an emergency and not a war was so British insurers would not have to pay out in case of war. Guerrilla fighters targeted British monetary assets such as rubber tree plantations, causing huge monetary losses. The British troops indulged in torture, decapitation, scalping, imprisoning 500,000 people in Internment Camps, and deporting 30,000 others. | Asia |
| Communist Insurgency in Malaysia | Second Malayan Emergency | 20th | 17 June 1968 | 2 December 1989 | The Communist Insurgency in Malaysia, also known as the Second Malayan Emergency, was an armed conflict between the Malaysian federal forces and the Malayan Communist Party (MCP),led by the ethnically Chinese leader Chin Peng. It also coincided with renewed domestic tensions between ethnic Chinese and Malays. Rooted in the 1948 insurrection, the insurgency lasted over 20 years, with Britain viewing Peng as dangerous as Osama bin Laden. The MCP were also offered financial backing from China to launch the revolt. The MCP was disbanded after a peace agreement was signed in 1989. | Asia |
| Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 | | 20th | 2 December 1989 | | The Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989 was a peace agreement signed by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and both Malaysia and Thailand. The peace accord marked the end of the Communist insurgency in Malaysia which had been going on for over two decades. Although it did not stipulate the surrender of the MCP, the provisions requested that the MCP cease all militant activities, destroy their armed weapons and disband their armed units. They were also required to pledge allegiance to His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, unofficially known as the King of Malaysia. | Asia |
| Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation | Borneo Confrontation | 20th | 20 January 1963 | 11 August 1966 | The Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, also known as the Borneo Confrontation or by the Indonesian/Malay name of Konfrontasi, was an armed conflict between Indonesia and Malaysia allied with Commonwealth forces. The conflict stemmed from Indonesia’s opposition to the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Indonesia’s view was that the status of the new Federation of Malaysia would be neocolonial, as Britain would maintain military bases in Malaya and Singapore. Once Indonesia’s President Sukarno was ousted, the dispute ended and Malaysia was formed. | Asia |
| Indonesian National Revolution | Indonesian War of Independence | 20th | 17 August 1945 | 27 December 1949 | The Indonesian National Revolution, also called the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire. It was sparked by social revolution following Indonesia’s proclamation for independence and challenging of colonial Dutch-established social order and the Dutch Empire, intent on re-establishing their colony in South East Asia. Anti-Japanese resentment was also widespread. Although it resulted in a military victory for the Dutch, Indonesian independence was recognised and the United States of Indonesia was formed. | Asia |
| Darul Islam Rebellion | | 20th | 7 August 1949 | 2 September 1962 | The Darul Islam Rebellion was a thirteen-year war waged between the Darul Islam, who were the Islamic State of Indonesia, against the Government of Indonesia. The war began when a former Indonesian nationalist called Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo refused to recognise the new Republic of Indonesia and proclaimed the establishment of the Islamic State of Indonesia instead. Kartosuwirjo was captured and executed in 1965. Although his execution resulted in the dissolution of Dar Islam, some of its supporters created a new Islamic movement known as Komando Jihad. | Asia |
| Papua Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1 October 1962 | Ongoing | The Papua Conflict is an ongoing conflict between Indonesia and the Free Papua Movement (Organisasi Papua Merdeka, or OPM),based in Western New Guinea. The conflict started after the 1963 administration of Indonesia was formed, following the withdrawal of the colonial Dutch administration from the Netherlands New Guinea in 1962. Indonesia has been accused of running a police state and conducting a genocidal campaign against Indigenous people of New Guinea by the Free Papua Movement. Deaths have been estimated to be between 100,000 and 500,000. | Asia |
| Indonesian Invasion of East Timor | Operation Lotus | 20th | 7 December 1975 | 17 July 1976 | The Indonesian Invasion of East Timor, also known as Operation Lotus in Indonesia, was a bloody conflict between Indonesia and East Timor, resulting in a 25-year occupation of East Timor by Indonesian military forces lasting until 1999. Indonesia invaded East Timor to overthrow the Fretilin regime, under the pretext of fighting colonialism and communism. Indonesian forces were responsible for the East Timor genocide, and at least 70% of deaths. It is estimated that over 185,000 deaths were linked to this conflict, which resulted in East Timor becoming a province of Indonesia. | Asia |
| Java War (1741-1743) | Chinese War | 18th | 1 February 1741 | Early 1743 | The Java War (1741-1743),also called the Chinese War, was fought between ethnic Chinese and Javanese forces against the Dutch Colonial Government forces and Pro-Dutch Javanese. After increasing anti-Chinese sentiment, Dutch troops of the VOC (The Dutch East India Company) deported thousands of Chinese while simultaneously massacring 10,000 ethnic Chinese in Batavia (present-day Jakarta) which instigated the war. It ended with a Dutch victory and major reforms to secure profitability of Dutch colonies, gaining the Dutch East India Company large regions of coastal land. | Asia |
| Java War | Diponegoro War | 19th | 25 September 1825 | 28 March 1830 | The Java War, or Diponegoro War, was fought between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels, led by Prince Diponegoro. The Prince had initially been cooperative with the Dutch, however growing resentment due to various factors, including his succession to the throne being passed over, led him to revolt. Under his leadership, rebels engaged in guerrilla tactics challenging Dutch rule for five years before the prince was captured and subsequently exiled. The Dutch victory and costly war resulted in the implementation of major reforms throughout the Dutch East Indies. | Asia |
| Insurgency in Aceh | Rebellion in Aceh | 20th | 4 December 1976 | 15 August 2005 | The Insurgency in Aceh, also known officially by the Indonesian government as the Rebellion in Aceh, was a conflict fought by the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) against the government of Indonesia to make the province of Aceh independent from Indonesia. The Indonesian government had support from the United States, while the GAM had support from the Libyan Arab Jamarhiriya. The government led a strong military offensive which saw over 15,000 deaths on the rebel side. Following the tsunami of 2004, a peace agreement was signed to bring the insurgency to an end and grant Aceh special autonomy. | Asia |
| Helsinki Memorandum of Understanding | Helsinki Agreement | 21st | 15 August 2005 | | The Helsinki Memorandum of Understanding (MoU),also known as the Helsinki Agreement, was signed by representatives from the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, GAM) in Helsinki, Finland. It brought an end to the conflict in Aceh that had been ongoing with varying levels of intensity for nearly three decades. Previous peace talks failed to bring the insurgency to an end, but battle fatigue amongst rebel forces, a presidential election in 2004, and the devastating tsunami of 2004, accelerated the need to find a peaceful solution. | Asia |
| British Expedition to Abyssinia | | 19th | 4 December 1867 | 13 May 1868 | The British Expedition to Abyssinia was a 19th century campaign undertaken by the armed forces of the British Empire against the Ethiopian Empire, which was also known at the time as Abyssinia. Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia had imprisoned British missionaries and government representatives. Under Lieutenant-General Robert Napier, the British military landed on the coast of the Red Sea and travelled hundreds of miles across mountainous topography to Tewodros’s fortress at Magdala. In battle, the British defeated the Abyssinians and captured the Ethiopian capital. | Africa |
| Tripartite Accord | New York Accords | 20th | 22 December 1988 | | The Tripartite Accord of 1988, also known as the New York Accords, was a peace treaty signed by the foreign ministers of Angola, Cuba and South Africa at the UN headquarters in New York. The agreement stipulated the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. It also granted independence to Namibia from South Africa on terms including multi-party democracy, a capitalist free-market economy, and a transition period. The UN’s supervision of all actions ended the direct involvement of all foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War. | Africa |
| Herero and Namaqua Genocide | | 20th | 1904 | 1908 | The Herero and Namaqua genocide was a campaign of ethnic extermination and punishment that took place at the turn of the 20th century. The campaign was waged two decades after the German Empire formally colonised German South West Africa (present-day Namibia) in 1884. Between 1904 and 1907, an estimated 10,000 Nama and 65,000 Herero died from starvation and dehydration in the Namib desert or later from treatment in concentration camps. | Africa |
| Kongo-Wara Rebellion | Baya War | 20th | 1928 | 1931 | The Kongo-Wara Rebellion, also known as the Baya War, was the largest-scale insurrection against French colonial rule during the interwar period. In the former colonies of French Equatorial Africa and French Cameroon, the French colonial administration conscripted native populations into labour on plantations, in the military, and on the Congo-Ocean railway. In response, armed conflict broke out in 1928, and the following three years saw sustained conflict, mostly in rural areas which are now part of the Central African Republic. | Africa |
| Treaty of Addis Ababa | | 19th | 23 October 1896 | | The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed between Ethopia and Italy in October 1896, formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War. Earlier the same year, the Ethiopian army of Emperor Menilek II defeated Italian forces in the Battle of Adwa. Under the treaty’s terms, an earlier agreement—the Treaty of Wuchale of 1889—was unilaterally abrogated, and Ethiopia’s sovereign independence was officially recognised by Italy. The following year, both Britain and France signed treaties which recognised Ethiopia as an independent country. | Africa |
| Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 | | 20th | 26 August 1936 | | The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 recognised the Suez Canal as an integral part of Egypt, and Egypt as a sovereign, independent state. Though the treaty officially ended more than half a century of British occupation in Egypt, Egyptian sovereignty remained circumscribed by its terms. It provided for a 20-year Anglo-Egyptian military and defence alliance and allowed Britain to impose martial law and censorship in Egypt in the case of an international emergency. In 1951, the treaty was unilaterally abrogated by Egypt’s Wafd government. | Africa |
| Second Italo-Ethiopian War | Italian Invasion | 20th | 3 October 1935 | 19 February 1937 | The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ethiopian Empire from late 1935 to early 1937. This war of aggression has been understood as an expansionist policy characteristic of the Axis powers in the years preceding the Second World War. While both Italy and Ethiopia were members of the League of Nations, the League was ineffective when Italy violated Article X of its Covenant, and Ethiopia was annexed and subjected to Italian military occupation. The war has been known as The Ethiopian War in Italy and The Italian Invasion in Ethiopia. | Africa |
| Battle of Adwa | | 19th | 1 March 1896 | | The Battle of Adwa was a military conflict of 1 March 1896 between the Ethiopian army of King Menilek II and an Italian invading force. Supported by Russian and French equipment, the Ethiopian army outnumbered the Italian soldiers and Eritrean askaris and forced a retreat into Eritrea. This decisive Ethiopian victory was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895-96 and ended Italy’s campaign to expand its colonial empire in the Horn of Africa. As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa and recognised Ethiopia’s sovereign independence. | Africa |
| Treaty of Wuchale | | 19th | 2 May 1889 | | The Treaty of Wuchale was signed between the Ethiopian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy in 1889 with the aim of promoting trade relations. Differences between the versions produced in Amharic and Italian led to substantial differences in interpretation. Italy understood one article to impose a protectorate over Ethiopia, while Ethiopia saw it as permitting international diplomacy to be conducted through Italy. Within four years, the acting Emperor of Ethiopia denounced the treaty, and Italy began its unsuccessful attempt to impose the protectorate in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. | Africa |
| British Conquest of Egypt | Anglo-Egyptian War | 19th | July 1882 | September 1882 | The British Conquest of Egypt, also known as the Anglo-Egyptian War, established firm British colonial influence over Egypt. After dissatisfaction with European and Ottoman rule led to a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1879, Britain occupied the country in 1882 to crush the uprising and protect its own financial interests. The British military defeated Egyptian and Sudanese forces and established a ‘veiled protectorate’ over Ottoman Egypt until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers and Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt. | Africa |
| Anglo-Boer War | South African War | 19th | 11 October 1899 | 31 May 1902 | The Anglo-Boer War was a conflict between the British Empire and the two Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State). The conflict broke out in 1899 as a response to the British Empire’s influence in Southern Africa. British forces swiftly occupied the Boer republics, and many Boers responded by engaging in guerrilla warfare. After three years of warfare, aggressive British scorched earth policies brought about the war’s end, and the South African Republic and Orange Free State were both dissolved in 1902. | Africa |
| Treaty of Vereeniging | | 20th | 31 May 1902 | | The Treaty of Vereeniging was a peace treaty that ended the Anglo-Boer War, also known as the South African War and the Boer War. This settlement, signed in May 1902, brought an end to the conflict between the two Boer Republics (the South African Republic and the Orange Free State) and Great Britain. The treaty stipulated the surrender of all Boer forces and their weapons to the British forces and promised eventual self-government to the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as British colonies. The Union of South Africa was created eight years later in May 1910. | Africa |
| Angolan War of Independence | Armed Struggle of National Liberation | 20th | 4 February 1961 | 25 April 1974 | The Angolan War of Independence, known in Angola as the Armed Struggle of National Liberation, was a guerrilla war waged by multiple nationalist and separatist movements for the control of Angola. The war began after revolts against the forced cultivation of cotton and coffee left thousands of plantation workers dead. The Portuguese army conducted a counter-insurgency campaign for 13 years, until the war ended when a leftist military coup in Lisbon in 1974 overthrew Portugal's Estado Novo dictatorship and put an end to military action in all of Portugal’s African colonies. | Africa |
| Rhodesian Bush War | Zimbabwe War of Independence | 20th | 4 July 1964 | 12 December 1979 | The Rhodesian Bush War, also called the Zimbabwe War of Independence, was a civil conflict fought in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe, Zambia, Mozambique, and Botswana). The war’s three conflicting forces were the Rhodesian white minority-led government, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army. The origins of the war stemmed from native leaders’ opposition to the conquest of the region by the British South Africa Company. In 1980, Zimbabwe’s independence was recognised internationally for the first time. | Africa |
| South African Border War | Namibian War of Independence | 20th | 26 August 1966 | 15 January 1990 | The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, took place in Namibia (at the time, South West Africa),Zambia, and Angola. When years of petitioning by the South West African People’s Organisation through the UN for Namibian independence from South Africa brought no change, the People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) was formed. Conflict with the South African Defence Force broke out in 1966. The war was ultimately ended by the Tripartite Accord of 1990, which committed to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces from Angola and South West Africa. | Africa |
| Basuto Gun War | Basutoland Rebellion | 19th | 13 September 1880 | 29 April 1881 | The Basuto Gun War, also known as the Basutoland Rebellion, was a late-19th-century conflict between the Basuto people of present-day Lesotho and the Cape Colony in present-day South Africa. The Sotho people were forced to work on white-owned farms and mines, and sovereignty and traditional laws were under threat. When Basutoland chiefs attacked Cape Colony magistrates, troops from the Cape Colony were sent into Basutoland in retaliation. The war is a rare case in Southern African 19th-century history of black African victory against a colonial power. | Africa |
| Somaliland Campaign | Anglo-Somali War | 20th | 1900 | 1920 | The Somaliland Campaign, also known as the Anglo-Somali War, was a set of early-20th century military expeditions by British forces (with Italian and Ethiopian assistance) against the Dervish forces of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the Somali religious leader, in present-day Somalia. Britain dispatched a carrier-based strike force in response to an Islamist uprising against colonial forces which was perceived to threaten British interests in the Greater Middle East. Twenty years of conflict ended with a British-Italian victory and the collapse of the Dervish movement. | Africa |
| Six-Day War | Third Arab–Israeli War | 20th | 5 June 1967 | 10 June 1967 | The Six-Day War, also known as the Third Arab–Israeli War, was fought between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt, Syria and Jordan in 1967. After years of tensions between Israel and its neighbours, the Egyptian president closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli vessels and mobilised the Egyptian military along the Israel border. Israel Defence Forces launched pre-emptive air strikes on Egypt and its allies and seized the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and Golan Heights from Syria. The UN enforced a ceasefire, but geopolitical friction remained. | Africa |
| Franco-Hova Wars | Franco-Malagasy Wars | 19th | December 1883 | September 1895 | The Franco-Hova Wars, also known as the Franco-Malagasy Wars, were two French military interventions in Madagascar. While the Merina Kingdom of Madagascar had steadfastly managed to maintain its independence during the 19th century, in the early 1880s, the French colonial faction advocated an invasion of the island in order to suppress British influence. A treaty signed in 1885 was without effect and led to the Second Madagascar expedition in 1895, which resulted in the French overthrow of the ruling monarchy and the colonisation of Madagascar. | Africa |
| Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty | | 20th | 26 March 1979 | | The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty was signed on 26 March 1979, several months after the signing of a pair of political agreements named the Camp David Accords, by the President of Egypt and Prime Minister of Israel. The peace treaty’s main commitments were to mutual recognition, an end to the state of war that had been ongoing since the Arab–Israeli War of 1948, the recognition of the Strait of Tiran as an international waterway, and finally Israel’s withdrawal of its armed forces and civilians from the Sinai Peninsula, which it had captured during the Six-Day War of 1967. | Africa |
| Rif War | War of Melilla | 20th | 1921 | 1926 | The Rif War, also called the War of Melilla, was an armed conflict of the 1920s between occupying colonial Spanish military forces and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco. These latter groups maintained considerable local autonomy and were opposed to Spanish Christian rule. Berber tribes responded to the Spanish government’s attempts to bring the protectorate under their control with guerrilla attacks. France intervened and collaborated with Spain in 1924. By 1926, Spain finally gained effective control of the protectorate's territory. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fes | | 20th | 30 March 1912 | | The Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate in Morocco. The treaty, which was signed in 1912 by the Sultan of Morocco under duress and a French diplomat, allowed France to occupy parts of the country with the pretext of protecting the Sultan from internal opposition and maintaining power via indirect rule. In Fes, the then-capital of Morocco, riots immediately broke out when French officers announced the treaty’s measures. | Africa |
| Treaty of Wad Ras | | 19th | 26 April 1860 | | The Treaty of Wad Ras was a treaty signed between Morocco and Spain in 1860 after the latter’s victory in the War of Tetuan. The treaty granted major concessions to Spain. Morocco was forced to pay an indemnity sum bigger than its governing institution’s treasury, the coastal city of Sidi Ifni became a Spanish possession, Spanish colonies in North Africa were permitted to buy and export lumber harvested from surrounding forests freely, and the territories of the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla were extended further into Moroccan territory. | Africa |
| Hispano-Moroccan War | Tetuán War | 19th | 22 October 1859 | 26 April 1860 | The Hispano-Moroccan War, also known as the Tetuán War, was fought in northern Morocco in the mid-19th century. The war began with a conflict over Spanish settlements in North Africa, including the borders of the city of Ceuta. Such settlements had been subject to attacks by Rifians, a Berber ethnic group originally from the Rif region of north-eastern Morocco. In October 1859, Spain declared war on Morocco in an effort to enforce its own sovereignty over key areas. The war lasted until the Treaty of Wad Ras in April 1860. | Africa |
| Senussi Campaign | Senussi Revolt | 20th | November 1915 | February 1917 | The Senussi Campaign was fought during the First World War by the Kingdom of Italy and the British Empire against the Senussi, a religious order of Arabic nomads in Libya and Egypt. Seeking to divert British forces, the Ottoman Empire persuaded the Grand Senussi to attack British-occupied Egypt and encourage insurrection. The Senussi crossed the Libyan-Egyptian border and fought along the Egyptian coast, and the British forces ultimately defeated the Senussi and retook the coast in 1916. In the interior, fighting campaigns continued for nearly a year until peace was negotiated. | Africa |
| Italo-Turkish War | War of Libya | 20th | 29 September 1911 | 18 October 1912 | The Italo-Turkish War (or, as it is known in Italy, the War of Libya) was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire in 1911-12. Italy sought to gain colonies in North Africa by conquering Turkish provinces in modern-day Libya and took advantage of international uncertainty following the Moroccan crisis of 1911. The war remained at a stalemate for many months until a successful Italian offensive in North Africa in 1912, after which Turkey sought peace and conceded its rights over Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy. | Africa |
| Franco-Moroccan War | | 19th | 6 August 1844 | 10 September 1844 | The Franco-Moroccan War was fought between France and Morocco in 1844. The Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qadir had begun using north-eastern Morocco as a refuge and a recruiting base as early as 1840. In 1843, French military forces chased a group of his supporters deep into Morocco following the Battle of the Smala. The war began with the naval bombardment of the city of Tangier by a French fleet in August. It was brought to an end with the Treaty of Tangier in September, whereby Morocco officially recognised Algeria as a French possession for the first time. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tangier | | 19th | 10 September 1844 | | The Treaty of Tangier was signed on 10 September 1844 between the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Morocco. The treaty brought an end to the Franco-Moroccan War of 1844, which had ensued after the retreat of the Algerian resistance leader Abd al-Qadir into Morocco following French victories over many of his tribal supporters during the French conquest of Algeria. Under the treaty’s terms, Morocco agreed to recognise Algeria as a French possession, reduce the size of its garrison in the north-eastern city of Oujda, and establish a commission to demarcate the border with Algeria. | Africa |
| 1541 Algiers Expedition | | 16th | 20 October 1541 | 1 November 1541 | The 1541 Algiers Expedition was an attempted attack against the regency of Algiers (present-day Algeria) by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, in the mid-16th century. Algiers had been under the control of the Ottoman Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent since its capture in 1529, and Charles V sought revenge for the recent siege of Buda, which concluded with the capture of the Hungarian city by the Ottoman Empire. Damage to Spanish and Genoese fleets in a storm, however, led to their abandonment of the venture and the overall failure of the expedition. | Africa |
| Algerian War | Algerian Revolution | 20th | 1 November 1954 | 19 March 1962 | The Algerian War, also known as the Algerian Revolution, was a decolonisation war of 1954-1962. In 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and by the mid-20th century enthusiasm for autonomy and self-rule was growing. In 1954, Algeria’s National Liberation Front (FLN) created an armed wing to engage in struggle against French authorities. After major demonstrations in Algiers in favour of independence and a UN resolution recognising this right, France opened negotiations with the FLN resulting in Algerian independence from France and the collapse of the Fourth French Republic. | Africa |
| Adubi War | Egba Uprising | 20th | June 1918 | July 1918 | The Adubi War, also known as the Egba Uprising, was a conflict in the British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. In 1918, the colonial government introduced direct taxes on top of existing forced labour practices in the area. In June, an uprising across the region began, and hostilities ensued between some 31,000 Egba rebels and colonial troops until the rebellion was ended and the leaders killed or arrested three weeks later. | Africa |
| First Boer War | Transvaal War | 19th | 16 December 1880 | 23 March 1881 | The First Boer War, also known as the Transvaal War, was fought between Britain and the Boers of the Transvaal (the name of the South African Republic under British administration) in 1880-81. In the 19th century, British expansion into South Africa had been motivated by both a desire to control trade routes near the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of huge mineral deposits in the area. Transvaal Boers, who increasingly resented the 1877 British annexation of the Transvaal, revolted in 1880. The war resulted in a Boer victory and subsequent independence of the South African Republic. | Africa |
| Franco-Algerian War | | 17th | 18 October 1681 | 27 September 1688 | The Franco-Algerian War was a military conflict of the 1680s between France and the Barbary corsairs. In October 1680, corsairs captured several French vessels and took their captains and crews to Algiers as slaves, and the Dey of Algiers officially declared war on the French. In response, France undertook naval bombardments of Algiers in 1682 and 1683. A 100-year peace was agreed but, after Algiers violated the treaty in 1688, France again bombarded the city. A conclusive peace agreement, signed on 27 September 1688, ended the war. | Africa |
| South African Wars | Confederation Wars | 19th | 1879 | 1915 | The South African Wars, also known as the Confederation Wars, were a series of wars in a large part of southern Africa between 1879 and 1915. The discoveries in the region of gold in 1862 and diamonds in 1867 led to the widespread pursuit of commerce and resources, which in turn led to increasing hostilities between European colonial powers and indigenous Africans. Britain’s efforts to forge the diverse states of southern Africa into one single British-controlled federation were strongly resisted by the Cape Colony, the Boer republics, and independent African states. The European regions that had been most dominant in 1879 were, in 1910, all dissolved into the singular Union of South Africa. | Africa |
| Maritz Rebellion | Five Shilling Rebellion | 20th | 15 September 1914 | 4 February 1915 | The Maritz Rebellion, also known as the Five Shilling Rebellion, was an armed uprising in South Africa at the start of the First World War. The rebellion was led by Boers who sought the re-establishment of the South African Republic in the Transvaal, which was at the time a British colony. Some Boers were opposed to the South African government’s decision to undertake offensive operations in the German colony of South West Africa. The Maritz Rebellion was suppressed, and the South African army continued their operations into German South West Africa and conquered it by July 1915. | Africa |
| South-West Africa Campaign | | 20th | 15 September 1914 | 9 July 1915 | The South-West Africa campaign was the conquest, at the beginning of the First World War, of South West Africa by the Union of South Africa, whose forces were acting on behalf of the British imperial government. The South African government decided to undertake offensive operations in the German colony, which bordered the South African Republic, despite sympathy among the Boer population of South Africa for the German cause. South Africa defeated the German forces in South West Africa, occupied the colony in 1915, and from 1919 administered it as a League of Nations mandate territory. | Africa |
| Malaboch War | | 19th | April 1894 | July 1894 | The Malaboch War was a conflict between Chief Malaboch of the Bahananwa people and the government of the South African Republic. After the South African Republic (known under British rule as the Transvaal) was returned to the Boers in 1881 by the British, Malaboch refused to pay taxes to its government. In 1894, the government asked Malaboch to leave his kingdom; when he refused, it began a military drive against him. The South African Republic forces were swiftly victorious, and the Bahananwa surrendered. | Africa |
| Chilembwe Uprising | | 20th | 23 January 1915 | 26 January 1915 | The Chilembwe uprising was a rebellion against British colonial rule in Nyasaland (present-day Malawi) during the First World War in response to forced labour, racial discrimination, and new demands imposed on indigenous populations following the outbreak of the war. An uprising in early 1915 was met by a white settler militia mobilised by the colonial authorities, and many of the rebels fled towards Portuguese East Africa (present-day Mozambique). Although the rebellion did not itself achieve success, it had lasting effects on the British system of administration in Nyasaland and led to some reforms. | Africa |
| Abushiri Revolt | Slave-Trader Revolt | 19th | 1888 | 1889 | The Abushiri Revolt, also known as the Slave-Trader Revolt, was a rebellion in the late-19th century by Arab and Swahili populations of the coastal areas of East Africa whose administration had been ceded to the German East African Company in 1888 by the Sultan of Zanzibar. When the organisation attempted to take over the coastal towns, it was met with fierce resistance both by the Arab elite, who sought to protect their trade in enslaved people and ivory, and also by the indigenous population. A rebellion spread along the coast of present-day Tanzania and was ultimately quashed by a German expeditionary corps. | Africa |
| Barue Uprising | Barue Rebellion | 20th | 1917 | 1918 | The Barue Uprising, also known as the Barue Rebellion, was an insurrection in Portuguese Mozambique during the First World War. During the war, Portuguese colonisers subjected indigenous populations to forced labour, coercion by press gangs, and sexual violence. In 1917, the population rebelled, and various groups of Barue rebels fought independent campaigns. Britain disapproved of Portugal’s tactics and so, despite having received troops to suppress the Chilembwe rebellion, refused to send support to Portugal in return. Portugal suppressed the rebels with a violent regime of butchering, plundering, and enslavement. | Africa |
| Portuguese Colonial War | War of Liberation | 20th | 4 February 1961 | 25 April 1974 | The Portuguese Colonial War, also known as the War of Liberation, was fought between Portugal and emerging nationalist movements in Portugal’s African colonies (Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique) from 1961-1974. Unlike other European powers, the ultra-conservative Portuguese Estado Novo regime did not withdraw from its African colonies in the 1950s or 1960s; armed independence movements became active and were heavily supported by the Communist Bloc. The overthrow of Estado Novo by a military coup in 1974 brought the conflict to an end, and all Portuguese African territories became sovereign states. | Africa |
| Mau Mau Rebellion | Kenya Emergency | 20th | 1952 | 1960 | The Mau Mau Rebellion, also known as the Kenya Emergency, was a war in the British Kenya Colony between British authorities and the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA) from 1952-1960. Kenya was claimed as a British protectorate in 1895 and a colony in 1920. Throughout the 20th century, the colonial government forced Kenyans to become wage labourers, and indigenous groups had vast areas of their land expropriated. KLFA insurgency began to grow, and a state of emergency was declared in 1952; years of conflict were marked by war crimes committed by both sides. | Africa |
| Second Barbary War | US–Algerian War | 19th | 17 June 1815 | 19 June 1815 | The Second Barbary War, also known as the US-Algerian War, was fought between the USA and the Barbary Coast states of Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers in 1815. The First Barbary War ended in 1805 in a truce, and the focus of the USA shifted to Britain and the War of 1812. The Barbary pirates then returned to their practice of attacking American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean and ransoming their crews; at the end of the war of 1812, however, the USA renewed its attention to Barbary piracy and initiated a naval attack on Algiers. The brief war was ended by a treaty granting the USA full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea. | Africa |
| Wadai War | Ouaddai War | 20th | 1906 | 1912 | The Wadai War, also known as the Ouaddai War, was a conflict between France and the Wadai Empire and its allies in the early 20th century. The Wadai Sultanate, located in present-day Chad, Sudan, and the Central African Republic, lost its independence from the French in 1904. Wadai fiercely resisted the French invasion, and open conflict broke out in 1906. Wadai’s armies inflicted several defeats on the French colonial forces, but much of the empire fell to France in 1909. Wadai was completely occupied by the French in 1912, when the sultanate was abolished. | Africa |
| 1904–1905 Uprising in Madagascar | | 20th | 17 November 1904 | 30 August 1905 | The 1904-1905 Uprising in Madagascar was a rebellion by Malagasy people against Madagascar’s French colonisers. Madagascar was made a French protectorate in 1895, which was immediately followed by armed resistance. In response, France initiated a “pacification” effort, which saw the erasure of Malagasy culture, executions without trial, heavy taxation, and forced labour. The announcement of yet more changes led to an armed revolt in the southeast in 1904. Early rebel victories were not to last; despite another uprising in 1947, Madagascar would remain under French rule until 1960. | Africa |
| Volta-Bani War | | 20th | November 1915 | February 1917 | The Volta-Bani War was an anti-colonial rebellion that took place in parts of French West Africa (present-day Burkina Faso and Mali) between an indigenous African army and French colonial forces. The war started after the introduction of conscription of West Africans into the French army in the First World War. In 1915, a group of representatives from a dozen villages gathered and resolved to resist the French occupation, and conflict ensued until 1917, when the French army defeated the insurgents. The war was a major factor in the creation of the colony of Haute Volta (present-day Burkina Faso) after the First World War. | Africa |
| Mandingo Wars | | 19th | 1883 | 1898 | The Mandingo Wars were a series of conflicts of 1883-1898 between France and the Wassoulou Empire of the Mandingo, a West African people spread across present-day Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. The Mandingo waged a first war on the French to oppose their efforts to colonise West Africa; a second war in 1894 resulted in a Mandingo victory and ended the Ivory Coast protectorate. The final war, of 1898, saw the Mandingo attack the Kong Empire, a French ally. The wars ended in victory for France, who established dominance over the Ivory Coast and annexed the Wassoulou Empire into French West Africa. | Africa |
| South African Invasion of Lesotho | | 20th | 22 September 1998 | May 1999 | The South African Invasion of Lesotho, codenamed Operation Boleas, was a military invasion by South Africa’s National Defence Force. In May 1998, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy Party won parliamentary elections overwhelmingly. Allegations of vote fraud arose and widespread riots followed the opposition lawsuit’s failure. In September, Nelson Mandela, leader of the social-democratic government, approved troop deployment to Lesotho to quash the coup d’état; the occupation lasted seven months. | Africa |
| Second Matabele War | First Chimurenga | 19th | March 1896 | October 1897 | The Second Matabele War, also known as the First Chimurenga, was fought between the British South Africa Company (BSAC) against the Matabele people in the late 19th century in the area later known as Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe). In 1896, a revolt by the Matabele against the authority of the BSAC was sparked by worsening conditions due to drought and locust plagues. Britain responded by sending troops to suppress the Matabele and Shona people, though it took months to break the siege entirely. The war resulted in no significant change in BSAC policies such as taxation. | Africa |
| Vandalic War | | 6th | June 533 | March 534 | The Vandalic War was fought in North Africa between the Byzantine Empire and the Vandalic Kingdom of Carthage in the sixth century. The Vandals had occupied Roman North Africa in the previous century, established an independent kingdom, undertaken naval attacks across the Mediterranean, sacked Rome, and defeated a Roman invasion. In 533, the Eastern Roman emperor launched an attack on the Vandal king, and the two armies met in battle near Carthage. The war resulted in a Roman victory and Africa was formally restored to imperial rule, though beyond the old Vandal kingdom Mauri tribes soon rose up in rebellion. | Africa |
| Simba Rebellion | Orientale Revolt | 20th | October 1963 | November 1965 | The Simba Rebellion, also known as the Orientale Revolt, was a regional uprising which took place in the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1963 and 1965 in the wider context of the Congo Crisis and the Cold War. The rebellion in the eastern part of the country was led by followers of Patrice Lumumba, who was ousted from power in 1960 and killed in 1961. Simba rebels initially succeeded, capturing much of eastern Congo and declaring a "people's republic" at Stanleyville. However, internal conflicts, lack of organisation, and tensions with international allies weakened the insurgency. The Congolese government, supported by Western powers and mercenaries, launched successful counter-offensives in late 1964, leading to the disintegration of the rebellion by November 1965. | Africa |
| Treaty of Aranjuez | | 18th | 12 April 1779 | | The Treaty of Aranjuez was signed between Spain and Morocco in 1780. The coastal city of Melilla had been a Spanish possession since the late 15th century after it was abandoned following disputes between North African rulers, but Spanish sovereignty over the city was disputed intermittently for centuries. Spain sought to lessen the chance that Morocco would agree to British requests to declare war on the Spanish, as had happened in 1774. The signing of the treaty restored peace to the territory; according to its terms, Morocco officially recognised Spanish rule over Melilla. | Africa |
| Pretoria Convention | | 19th | 3 August 1881 | | The Pretoria Convention, also known as Convention for the Settlement of the Transvaal Territory, 3 August 1881, was a peace treaty that ended the First Boer War of 1880-81 between the Transvaal Boers and Great Britain. After the British Empire’s defeat, under the convention, the South African Republic regained self-government (nominal British suzerainty rather than full sovereignty). The treaty was superseded four years later by the London Convention; it incorporated much of the previous treaty and amended the country’s right to treaties with the Orange Free State without British approval. | Africa |
| Accra Riots | | 20th | 28 February 1948 | 3 March 1948 | The Accra Riots were a conflict of 1948 in Accra, which at the time was the capital city of the British colony of the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). On 28 February, a protest march by veterans of the Second World War who sought to bring about the dispensation of pensions was broken up by police, and three leaders of the group were killed. In response, people in Accra took to the streets in riot; the unrest lasted for five days. In their wake, the British colonial government set up the Watson Commission, which paved the way for constitutional changes that led ultimately to Ghana’s independence. | Africa |
| War of the Golden Stool | Yaa Asantewaa War | 20th | March 1900 | September 1900 | The War of the Golden Stool, also known as the Yaa Asantewaa War, was a campaign within a series of conflicts between Britain and the Ashanti Empire, an autonomous state in West Africa (in present-day Ghana). Ashanti had been occupied by British troops in 1896, and in 1900 the Ashanti people rose up against colonial rule and the threat to their rights, culture, and traditions. The war ended within six months with Ashanti’s loss of sovereignty and annexation by Britain. | Africa |
| Koacen Revolt | Tuarag Rebellion of 1916-17 | 20th | 17 December 1916 | 3 March 1917 | The Kaocen Revolt, also known as the Tuareg Rebellion of 1916-17, was an uprising against French colonial rule in the north of present-day Niger during the Second World War. The militantly anti-French Sanusiya Sufi religious order declared a Jihad against the French colonialists in 1914, and anti-French sentiment grew during several years of severe drought, taxation, and the abolition of the slave trade. In 1916, insurgents seized all the major towns of northern Niger. By 1917, French forces suppressed the rebellion, reclaimed the towns, and killed the rebel leaders. | Africa |
| King William's War | Second Indian War | 17th | 1689 | 1697 | King William's War, also known as the Second Indian War, was a conflict fought between France and England in the late 17th century. The war was a result of the ongoing power struggle between the two nations for control of North America. The French, who had established settlements in Canada and the Great Lakes region, saw the war as a way to protect their territorial claims. The English, who had colonies in the New England area, saw it as an opportunity to expand their territory and gain access to valuable resources. Both sides suffered heavy losses, with the war ending in a stalemate. | North America |
| Treaty of Rijswijk | | 17th | 20 September 1697 | | The Treaty of Rijswijk was signed in 1697, ending the Nine Years' War between France and the Grand Alliance (led by England and the Dutch Republic). Both sides agreed to return all captured territories and to respect each other's sovereignty. France, who had been on the offensive during the war, saw the treaty as a disappointment as they did not gain any significant territory. Whereas the Grand Alliance saw it as a victory as they were able to maintain their territories and prevent France from expanding their power. | North America |
| Queen Anne's War | Third Indian War | 18th | 1702 | 1713 | Queen Anne's War was also known as the Third Indian War. It was a struggle between France and England for control of North America, as well as a continuation of the ongoing war in Europe. The English colonies in North America, along with their Native American allies, fought against the French colonies and their Native American allies. The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which gave England control over Newfoundland and Acadia, while France retained control of Quebec. Both sides suffered heavy losses, including devastating attacks on colonial settlements. | North America |
| Father Rale's War | Dummer's War | 18th | 25 July 1722 | 15 December 1725 | Father Rale's War, also known as Drummer’s War, was a conflict that occurred in what is now Maine and New Hampshire. It was a battle between the Wabanaki Confederacy, an alliance of several Native American tribes led by Father Sébastien Rale, and the British colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The Wabanaki were fighting to protect their land and way of life from British colonisation. The British saw the conflict as a way to assert their control over the region and expand their settlements. The war ended with a treaty in which the Wabanaki were forced to cede more land to the British. | North America |
| Dummer's Treaty | | 18th | 15 December 1725 | | Dummer's Treaty was part of the Peace and Friendship Treaties between the British Empire and the Wabanaki Confederacy. It was signed to establish peace between the two sides, who had been engaged in a long-standing conflict over land and resources. The British viewed the treaty as a way to secure their territorial claims and access to valuable resources, while the Wabanaki Confederacy hoped to preserve their sovereignty and protect their land and resources from British encroachment. Despite the treaty, tensions between the two sides continued, ultimately leading to further conflict. | North America |
| War of Jenkins' Ear | | 18th | 1739 | 1748 | The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that later led to the War of the Austrian Succession. The war was fought over colonial territories in North America and the Caribbean, as well as trade disputes and the treatment of British sailors by the Spanish. The interest from the British was to protect their colonies and trade routes, while the Spanish saw it as a defence of their own territorial claims and interests in the region. The war ultimately ended in a stalemate, with both sides agreeing to return to the status quo from before the conflict. | North America |
| King George's War | | 18th | 1744 | 1748 | King George's War was a conflict between Great Britain and France and was the North American arena of the European War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of four French and Indian Wars, and took place in the provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire and Novia Scotia. The British managed to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg, but when the war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 this expansion was returned to the French. While the land claims were restored, the treaty failed to resolve territorial tensions. | North America |
| Treaty of the French and Indian War | Treaty of Paris | 18th | 10 February 1763 | | The Treaty of the French and Indian War, also known as the Treaty of Paris, was signed in 1763 and marked the end of the war between France and Great Britain for control of North America. For the British, the treaty was a victory as they gained control of all French territory in North America, including Canada. However, for the French, it was a defeat as they lost their colonies and their influence in the region. The treaty also had a significant impact on the Native American tribes, who were forced to cede land and were affected by the shifting power dynamics between the European powers. | North America |
| French and Indian War | Seven Years' War | 18th | 28 May 1754 | 10 February 1763 | The French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, was a conflict between France and Great Britain for control of North America. The war began in 1754 and lasted until 1763. The British saw the war as an opportunity to expand their territory and gain control of valuable resources, while the French sought to protect their colonies and trade routes. The war was fought on multiple fronts, including North America, Europe, and India. In the end, the British emerged victorious, and France was forced to cede all of its territories in North America to Britain. | North America |
| Pontiac's Rebellion | Pontiac's War | 18th | 1763 | 1765 | Pontiac's Rebellion, also known as Pontiac's War, was a conflict between Native American tribes and British colonial forces in the Great Lakes region of North America. The Native Americans, led by Chief Pontiac, sought to resist the expansion of British settlements into their territory. The British saw the rebellion as a challenge to their authority and a threat to the stability of their colonies. The conflict lasted several years, with both sides engaging in raids and battles. Eventually, a peace treaty was negotiated, but tensions between Native Americans and British colonists continued. | North America |
| Treaty of Oswego | | 18th | July 1766 | | The Treaty of Oswego ended the war between the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy and the English. For the Iroquois, the treaty represented a surrender of their territory and a loss of independence. The English saw it as a victory, securing control over the region and establishing their dominance over the native peoples. The treaty required the Iroquois to abandon their alliances with the French and recognise British sovereignty. This agreement set the stage for future conflicts between Native American nations and European settlers in North America. | North America |
| American Revolutionary War | American War of Independence | 18th | 19 April 1775 | 3 September 1783 | The American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence, was fought between the American colonies and the British Empire. The American patriots, led by figures such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, believed in their right to self-governance and were fighting against the unjust taxation and infringement of their rights by the British government. The British saw the conflict as an act of rebellion and sought to maintain their control over the colonies. The war resulted in the independence of the United States and the formation of a new government. | North America |
| Tecumseh's War | Tecumseh's Rebellion | 19th | 7 November 1811 | 5 October 1813 | Tecumseh's War was a conflict between the Native American Confederacy led by Tecumseh and the United States in the early 19th century. Tecumseh's Native American Confederacy, which consisted of several tribes, sought to resist the encroachment of American settlers on their ancestral lands. The United States saw Tecumseh's War as a threat to their expansion and sought to quash the uprising. For the Native Americans, the war was a struggle to preserve their way of life and protect their land from the Americans who wished to pave the way for further expansion. | North America |
| War of 1812 | Second American War of Independence | 19th | 18 June 1812 | 17 February 1815 | The War of 1812, also known as the Second American War of Independence, was a conflict between the United States and the British Empire. From the American perspective, the war was a struggle for independence and a response to the impressment of American sailors by the British navy. The British saw it as a necessary measure to protect their commerce and suppress American aggression. The war resulted in significant losses for both sides, but it ultimately ended with a peace treaty signed in 1814. The Treaty of Ghent did not resolve any major issues, but it did restore the status quo ante bellum. | North America |
| Black Hawk War | | 19th | 6 April 1832 | 27 August 1832 | The Black Hawk War was fought between the United States government and a group of Native American tribes led by the Sauk leader Black Hawk. The Native Americans were forced to cede their ancestral lands in Illinois and were attempting to reclaim it. The US saw this as an act of rebellion and sought to maintain control of the territory. The Native Americans were fighting for their ancestral land and their way of life, which was threatened by the influx of settlers and the US government's expansionist policies. The Native American tribes were defeated and thousands were forced to relocate. | North America |
| Texas Revolution | War of Texas Independence | 19th | 2 October 1835 | 21 April 1836 | The Texas Revolution, also known as the War of Texas Independence, was a battle between Mexico and the American settlers in Texas over independence and land rights. Mexico saw the Americans as a threat to their sovereignty, while the settlers sought independence from the rule of Mexico. In 1835, the Texans declared their independence and fought against the Mexican army in several battles. Eventually, the Texans emerged victorious and gained their independence in 1836. However, Mexico did not recognise their independence and tensions between the two sides continued for years to come. | North America |
| Treaties of Velasco | | 19th | 14 May 1836 | | The Treaties of Velasco were two agreements signed in 1836 between Mexico and the newly independent Republic of Texas, ending the Texas Revolution. Mexico saw the treaties as a way to put a stop to the conflict and bring peace to the region, while Texas saw them as recognition of their independence and sovereignty. The treaties granted Texas the right to navigate the Rio Grande, but Mexico maintained that the agreements were only temporary and not legally binding. Despite this, Texas used the treaties as proof of their independence in negotiations with other nations. | North America |
| Mexican-American War | | 19th | 25 April 1846 | 2 February 1848 | The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico. The US saw the war as an opportunity to expand their territory and believed that Mexico was illegally occupying American land. Mexico saw the American invasion as an unjust aggression, and they fought to defend their sovereignty and territory. The war resulted in a significant expansion of American territory, as the US gained California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma. | North America |
| Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo | | 19th | 2 February 1848 | | The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty recognised Mexico's loss of the territories of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma, and parts of Texas to the United States. Mexico saw the treaty as a defeat, surrendering 55 per cent of its land to the American government. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo solidified the United States as a dominant power in North America and forever altered the borders of Mexico. | North America |
| Battle of Mabila | | 16th | October 1540 | | The Battle of Mabila was a critical moment in the conflict between Hernando de Soto and the indigenous peoples of what is now the south-eastern United States. De Soto and his Spanish conquistadors saw the indigenous peoples as obstacles to their quest for wealth and power. The battle took place in what is now Alabama, in 1540. It was a fierce and bloody conflict. De Soto's forces ultimately emerged victorious, but the battle had a profound impact on the indigenous peoples, who suffered significant losses and faced ongoing threats from the Spanish in the years to come. | North America |
| Tiguex War | | 16th | December 1540 | March 1541 | The Tiguex War was a conflict between the Pueblo Indians and Spanish colonisers in New Mexico. The Pueblo Indians, who had lived in the area for generations, saw the Spanish as invaders who disrupted their way of life and imposed their religion and customs. The Spanish saw the Pueblo as heathens who needed to be converted and civilised. Tensions remained after the conflict, with the Spanish forcibly relocating the Pueblo to nearby missions, and came to a head again in 1680 when the Pueblo staged a successful revolt against the Spanish driving them out of the area for a period of 12 years. | North America |
| Mixtón War | | 16th | 1540 | 1542 | The Mixtón War was a conflict that took place in Mexico in the late 16th century between the Caxcanes indigenous peoples and the Spanish conquerors. The indigenous peoples were revolting against the oppressive rule and exploitation of the Spanish colonisers, who sought to control their resources and enslave the local population. The Mixtón War was marked by brutal violence and saw the indigenous peoples put up a strong resistance, but in the end, the Spanish were successful in suppressing the rebellion and consolidating their power. | North America |
| Chichimeca War | | 16th | 1550 | 1590 | The Chichimeca War was a conflict between the Spanish colonisers and the indigenous Chichimeca people in Mexico during the second half of the 16th century. The Spanish were seeking to expand their territories and extract valuable resources from the region, while the Chichimecas were fighting to protect their lands, culture and way of life. The war resulted in the Spanish exerting their control over the region but at a great cost. The Chichimecas suffered greatly and their culture was forever changed. | North America |
| Navajo Wars | | 17th | 1660 | 1866 | The Navajo Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Navajo tribe and the United States government, largely in the 19th century. The Navajo, who had long inhabited the area that is now the southwestern United States, resisted the US government's efforts to forcibly relocate them to reservations. The US army responded with military force, leading to several wars and skirmishes over a period of several decades. The conflict finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Bosque Redondo in 1868, which allowed the Navajo to return to their ancestral lands. | North America |
| Treaty of Bosque Redondo | | 19th | 1 June 1868 | | The Treaty of Bosque Redondo, signed in 1868, marked the end of the Navajo Wars and saw the forced relocation of the Navajo people to the Bosque Redondo Reservation in New Mexico. The treaty stipulated that the Navajo would remain on the reservation and receive food, clothing, and other resources in exchange for their obedience and loyalty to the US government. The Treaty of Bosque Redondo had long-lasting impacts on the Navajo people, who struggled to rebuild their lives and maintain their traditions on the reservation. | North America |
| Anglo-Powhatan Wars | | 17th | 1609 | 1646 | The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were a series of conflicts between the English settlers in Virginia and the Powhatan Native American confederacy. The first war began in 1609, when the English began to take over Powhatan lands. The English regarded the Powhatan as a threat to their expansion. Chief Wahunsunacawh, referred to as Chief Powhatan by the English, led the fight against the settlers. Throughout the series of wars, both sides engaged in acts of violence and diplomacy. Ultimately, the English won, forcing the Powhatan to accept their rule and lose much of their land and culture. | North America |
| Treaty of 1677 | Treaty of Middle Plantation | 17th | 29 May 1677 | | The Treaty 1677, also known as the Treaty of Middle Plantation, was signed between the Virginia colonists and the Native American tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy. From the colonist's perspective, the treaty was necessary to establish peace and secure their settlements in the face of repeated attacks. The Native Americans saw the treaty as a forced agreement, imposed on them by the colonists who had taken their land and resources. They felt the treaty did not adequately address their grievances or protect their rights. Overall, the Treaty of 1677 represented a fragile peace. | North America |
| Pequot War | | 17th | August 1636 | 1637 | The Pequot War was a conflict between the Pequot tribe and English settlers in the early 17th century in what is now Connecticut. The Pequots were a powerful tribe that controlled trade and were perceived as a threat by the settlers. The war broke out in 1637, leading to a brutal massacre of Pequot people by the English and their Native American allies. The Pequots saw this as an act of aggression, while the settlers saw it as necessary for self-defence. The war ended with the Treaty of Hartford in 1638, which stripped the Pequots of their power and land. | North America |
| Pequot Massacre | Mystic Massacre | 17th | 26 May 1637 | | The Pequot Massacre, also known as the Mystic Massacre, was a brutal event that took place in the New England colonies. The conflict arose from tensions between the Pequot tribe and English settlers who sought control over the region. The conflict culminated in a violent attack on the Pequot village Mystic Fort, where hundreds of tribe members were killed and the village burned to the ground. The massacre is seen as a seminal moment in the history of the region and is remembered as a devastating example of the violence and fear that marked the early years of colonial America. | North America |
| Treaty of Hartford | | 17th | 21 September 1638 | | The Treaty of Hartford ended the Pequot War between the English settlers and the Pequot tribe in New England. The English viewed the treaty as a victory as it secured their control over the region and allowed them to establish settlements without fear of attack from the Pequots. The Pequots saw it as a surrender and a loss of their sovereignty and territory. The treaty required the Pequots to give up their firearms, pay a hefty fine, and become vassals of the English. The treaty set a precedent for the subjugation of Native American tribes in the region. | North America |
| Beaver Wars | Iroquois Wars | 17th | 1609 | 1701 | The Beaver Wars, also known as the Iroquois Wars, were a series of wars fought in the 17th century between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Hurons, Algonquins, and French. The Iroquois were seeking to control the beaver fur trade and expand their territory, while the Hurons and Algonquins were trying to protect their trading relationships and territory. The French also sought control of the fur trade and allied themselves with the Hurons and Algonquins. The wars were characterised by brutal fighting and represent the struggle for control over resources in the early colonial period. | North America |
| Kieft's War | Wappinger War | 17th | 25 February 1643 | 1645 | Kieft's War, also known as the Wappinger War, was a conflict between the Dutch settlers and the indigenous Lenape people in the New Netherland territory. The Dutch governor, Willem Kieft, believed the Lenape were uncooperative and sought to assert control over them through violence. The Lenape saw the Dutch as intruders and resisted the governor's demands. The war resulted in numerous raids and massacres by both sides, causing significant casualties and destruction. The Dutch eventually decided they could not defeat the Lenape and reached a peaceful agreement. | North America |
| Italian Guerrilla War in Ethiopia | | 20th | 27 November 1941 | October 1943 | The Italian Guerrilla War in Ethiopia took place during the Second World War in Ethiopia and Somalia, in a short-lived attempt to re-establish Italian East Africa. Following the military defeat of Mussolini’s forces in Ethiopia in 1941 and General Guglielmo Nasi’s surrender of the last troops of the Italian colonial army, many of his personnel decided to start a guerrilla war in East Africa’s mountains and deserts. By 1943, the rebellion was suppressed by Allied forces operating alongside the Ethiopian army. | Africa |
| 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion | | 20th | 2 July 1945 | 7 July 1945 | The 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion was an uprising by tribesmen of the Habr Je’lo clan in the former British Somaliland protectorate against the British colonial authorities. Recent decades had seen other revolts in response to Britain’s imposition of taxes and conscription, and Somali nationalist sentiment grew. Massive riots began in 1945 in response to Britain’s decision to poison grazing lands as part of an anti-locust campaign. Britain launched a counter-insurgency campaign and killed the rebellion’s leader, Sheikh Bashir, but the unrest continued and anti-colonialist sentiment only increased in Somaliland. | Africa |
| Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 | Rodd Treaty | 19th | 14 May 1897 | | The Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897, also known as the Rodd Treaty, was an agreement between Britain and Ethiopia pertaining to border issues between Ethiopia and British Somaliland. Under the Anglo-Ethiopian treaty, Britain ceded the north-eastern part of the Haud Plateau, a fertile traditional Somali grazing area spanning the northern Ethiopian-Somali border, to Ethiopia. By the late 20th century, however, the boundary dispute between Ethiopia and Somalia had not been settled, and Somali nomads continued to move back and forth across the plateau as they had done for centuries. | Africa |
| Conquest of Algeria | Pacification of Algeria | 19th | 1830 | 1903 | The Conquest of Algeria, also known as the Pacification of Algeria, was a series of military operations by French colonial forces that sought to quell tribal rebellions and massacres of French settlers in rural Algeria after the French conquest of the Regency of Algiers of 1830. After defeating their Ottoman opponents and capturing Algeria and amid internal political strife in France, French military forces undertook campaigns to control the region and suppress rebellions over a span of 70 years, and engaged in a punitive scorched-earth policy against the Algerian population. | Africa |
| Sétif and Guelma Massacre | | 20th | 8 May 1945 | 26 June 1945 | The Sétif and Guelma Massacre was a series of attacks by French colonial forces and settler militias on Algerian civilians in French Algeria, in 1945. On 8 May, when French police fired on demonstrators at a protest in the town of Sétif, Algerians rioted and attacked and killed French settlers. The French authorities responded in turn by indiscriminately murdering tens of thousands of Muslims around Sétif. The attacks had a significant negative impact on French-Algerian relations and paved the way for the Algerian War in 1954. | Africa |
| First Barbary War | Tripolitan War | 19th | 10 May 1801 | 10 June 1805 | The First Barbary War, also known as the Tripolitan War, was a conflict of 1801-05 which pitted forces of the United States and Sweden against Tripolitania, a historic region and former province of Libya. Tripolitania declared war after the United States and Sweden refused to make tributary payments in exchange for a commitment to ending attacks on merchant ships in the Mediterranean by Barbary corsairs. After a series of inconclusive sea battles, the war was ended with a treaty in 1805 but relations remained strained until the Second Barbary War began in 1815. | Africa |
| Tunisian Campaign | Battle of Tunisia | 20th | 17 November 1942 | 13 May 1943 | The Tunisian Campaign, also known as the Battle of Tunisia, was a series of conflicts between Axis and Allied forces during the North African campaign of the Second World War. In early 1942, after the US entered the war, US troops were deployed via French North Africa whose colonies aligned themselves with the Vichy government. Hitler sent troops to Tunisia to maintain control of the Mediterranean Sea and prevent an invasion of Italy. By 1943, the Allies (British imperial forces, a Greek contingent with US and French corps) won an overwhelming victory over their German and Italian opponents. | Africa |
| Ifni War | Forgotten War | 20th | 23 October 1957 | 30 June 1958 | The Ifni War, also known in Spain as the Forgotten War, was a series of incursions into Spanish West Africa (present-day Morocco and Western Sahara) by Moroccan insurgents in the 1950s. When Morocco won its independence from French and Spanish colonial rule in 1956, many Moroccans sought to fight for the independence of all of Spain’s remaining colonial possessions, including the coastal city of Sidi Ifni. When demonstrations began in 1957, Spain’s Franco dispatched Spanish Legion forces to quell the uprisings. Spain retained possession of Ifni until 1969 and Spanish Sahara until 1975. | Africa |
| East African Campaign | Abysinnian Campaign | 20th | 10 June 1940 | 27 November 1941 | The East African Campaign, also known as the Abyssinian Campaign, was fought by Allied forces mostly from the British Empire against Italy during the Second World War. In 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France, making Italian forces in Libya a threat to Egypt and those in Italian East Africa a danger to the British and French. The Allies aimed to protect sea lanes through the Red Sea and also defend Egypt and the Suez Canal from potential Italian invasion. The campaign began in mid-1940, and by late 1941 almost all Italian troops had surrendered which led to the dissolution of Italian East Africa. | Africa |
| Ngcayechibi's War | Fengu-Gcaleka War | 19th | 1877 | 1879 | Ngcayechibi's War, also known as the Fengu-Gcaleka War, was the ninth and final Xhosa War between the British Empire and the Xhosa people. The war also involved Cape Colony, whose partial independence from Britain was threatened by a plan to strengthen Britain’s control of southern Africa by uniting its states into a Confederation. A frontier war was seen as an opportunity for annexation. A severe drought added to growing political tensions, and 1877 saw the beginning of many conflicts. By 1879, the Xhosa were defeated and all their remaining territory was annexed. | Africa |
| Tabora Offensive | | 20th | April 1916 | September 1916 | The Tabora Offensive was an Anglo-Belgian offensive into German East Africa during the First World War. The Allies sought to gain control of an important railway network and keep the Ruanda-Urundi territory under Belgian military occupation. Germany sought to divert Allied resources from the Western Front to Africa. Conflict ensued and Belgian Congo forces captured Tabora, the largest town in the interior of the colony. After the war, as stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede control of German East Africa to the Allies. | Africa |
| London Convention (1884) | | 19th | 27 February 1884 | | The London Convention, known officially as the Convention Between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the South African Republic, was a treaty signed on 27 February 1884 by representatives of Great Britain and the South African Republic. The treaty followed the retrocession of the South African Republic after the First Boer War. It restored the country’s name, which had changed to the Transvaal Territory during the British occupation, and also stipulated that it had the right to enter into a treaty with the Orange Free State without British approval. | Africa |
| Adamawa Wars | | 19th, 20th | January 1899 | August 1907 | The Adamawa Wars were fought between German colonial forces and the Islamic Sokoto Empire, mostly north of the German colony of Kamerun (present-day Cameroon). In the 1890s, Adamawa, the largest Sokoto territory proximate to Kamerun, was undergoing a great deal of internal struggle. Determined to expand its colony, Germany seized the opportunity when a Mahdist state developed in Adamawa and began military expeditions under the pretext of ending the local Islamic slave trade in 1899. Eight years of war ended with the German annexation of Adamawa and the dissolution of the Sokoto Caliphate. | Africa |
| Xhosa Wars | Cape Frontier Wars | 18th | 1779 | 1879 | The Xhosa Wars, also known as the Cape Frontier Wars, were nine wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa from 1779-1879. By the mid-1700s, European colonisers encountered the cattle-herding Xhosa people, and tensions grew as many Xhosa were displaced and those remaining were relocated to towns and subjected to colonial control. The wars that ensued were the longest in the history of European colonialism in Africa. The wars ended in the Xhosas’ defeat and paved the way for the Confederation Wars and the Anglo-Boer War. | Africa |
| Bambatha Rebellion | Zulu Rebellion | 20th | 1906 | 1906 | The Bambatha Rebellion, also known as the Zulu Rebellion, was a conflict of 1906 led by the leader of the Zondi clan of the Zulu people against British rule and taxation in the Colony of Natal, South Africa. Following the Anglo-Boer War, increased competition meant that British employers struggled to recruit black farm workers. The colonial authorities introduced a poll tax as well as the existing hut tax to pressure Zulus to enter the labour market. A series of guerrilla attacks by discontented Zulus followed; British troops responded with machine guns and cannons and swiftly quelled the rebellion. | Africa |
| Ashanti–Fante War | Ghana War | 19th | 1806 | 1807 | The Ashanti–Fante War, also known as the Ghana War, was fought between the Ashanti Empire and the Fante Confederacy in present-day Ghana. The Fante had grown wealthy by controlling trade between Europeans and the interior and aligned themselves with the British, whereas the Ashanti people had resisted British efforts to colonise them and aligned themselves with the Dutch to limit British influence. Rising tensions led to a war in 1806 which resulted in Ashanti victory in 1807, though this was the first of many wars in the region throughout the century. | Africa |
| First Anglo-Ashanti War | | 19th | 1823 | 1831 | The First Anglo-Ashanti War was initiated five between the Ashanti Empire and the British Empire and its Gold Coast (present-day Ghana) allies when the Ashanti people began a territorial dispute with the Fante, another Ghanaian ethnic group, and a client state of Great Britain. In 1823, the region’s governor led British forces against the Ashanti. The Ashanti were victorious, and defeated the British again, along with their African allies, a year later. The British were forced to withdraw in 1828, and the war ended with the Ashanti accepting a river boundary between the two regions in 1831. | Africa |
| Third Anglo-Ashanti War | First Ashanti Expedition | 19th | 1873 | c1874 | The Third Anglo-Ashanti War, also known as the First Ashanti Expedition, was one of five conflicts in the 19th century between the Ashanti Empire (present-day Ghana) and the British Empire and its African allies. In 1872, Britain expanded their British Gold Coast territory by purchasing Dutch Gold Coast from the Dutch; this included the town of Elmina, claimed by the Ashanti. They wanted to maintain their imperial stronghold over coastal areas where peoples, such as the Fante and Ga, had come under British protection and invaded the new British protectorate; battles ensued until 1874. | Africa |
| Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War | Second Ashanti Expedition | 19th | 26 December 1895 | 4 February 1896 | The Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War, also known as the Second Ashanti Expedition, was one of five 19th-century conflicts between the Ashanti Empire (in present-day Ghana) and the British Empire and African allies. Britain wanted to deter French and German forces from the region and its gold, but the Ashanti resisted becoming a British protectorate. Although the Ashanti sent a delegation to London offering concessions on gold, cocoa and rubber, Britain returned an expeditionary force in December 1895. The war lasted a few months, and in 1897 Ashanti territory became a British protectorate. | |
| Bond of 1844 | | 19th | 6 March 1844 | | The Bond of 1844 was a treaty signed by the British government and the Chiefs of the Fante people of the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). The Fante, who had controlled coastal trade routes for centuries, in the 1800s were increasingly subjugated by the Asante, another Ghanaian ethnic group. Britain sought to expand its trade and influence in West Africa, and so took the opportunity to extend its protection to the Fante in 1844 with a treaty that committed to protecting Fante people and property and brought the Gold Coast under formal British colonial rule. | Africa |
| Mfecane Wars | Lifaqane Wars | 19th | 1818 | 1835 | The Mfecane Wars, also known as the Lifaqane Wars, were a series of military conflicts in southern Africa from 1818 to 1835. Growing tensions amongst tribes due to drought, famine, resource scarcity, overpopulation, overgrazing, and the rise of the Zulu military kingdom led to warfare from Cape Colony to East and Central Africa as kingdoms battled for resources. Areas of South Africa were temporarily depopulated when refugees fled, easing the way for white colonial expansion. The impact of the wars was felt far beyond South Africa, as people fled as far as Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia. | Africa |
| First Free State-Basotho War | Senekal's War | 19th | 19 March 1858 | 1 June 1858 | The First Free State–Basotho War, also known as Senekal’s War, was one of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom and the white settlers in what is now known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. In the early 19th century, the Basotho king allowed British, Boers and Nguni escapees into his settlements. In 1854, faced with the rising costs of maintaining their territory’s sovereignty, Britain handed it to the Boers who named it the Orange Free State (OFS). Tensions rose over territorial rights, and in 1858 the OFS declared war on the Basotho which endured for several years. | Africa |
| Second Free State-Basotho War | Seqiti War | 19th | 1865 | 11 April 1866 | The Second Free State–Basotho War, also known as the Seqiti War, was one of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom and the white settlers in what is now known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. An uneasy peace followed the first Free State–Basotho War and, in 1865, the Orange Free State declared war again. Its troops seized the cattle and destroyed the crops of the Basotho living in the territory and, when the Basotho ran out of food supplies, they were forced to accept a treaty in 1866. The wars ultimately resulted in the Basotho accepting annexation as a part of the British Empire. | Africa |
| Bamileke War | Cameroonian Independence War | 20th | 1955 | 1964 | The Bamileke War, also known as the Cameroonian Independence War, was a struggle by Bamileke Cameroon's nationalist movement for independence from France. The movement was led by the Cameroonian Peoples Union (UPC),who wanted to separate from France and establish a socialist economy. The war began when riots broke out in 1955. Cameroon gained independence in 1960, though the rebellion went on until 1964. The war has also been dubbed the Hidden War because it occurred at the same time as the peak of the Algerian War, France's most substantial colonial independence struggle. | Africa |
| Sagbadre War | | 18th | 30 March 1784 | 18 June 1784 | The Sagbadre War was a punitive expedition by Denmark and its allies against the Anlo Ewe people of southern Togo, southern Benin, southwest Nigeria, and south-eastern Ghana. Because Anlo had acquired significant territory from its neighbours in 18th-century wars, Denmark used raids made into Danish territory in 1783 to justify an expedition against Anlo to secure trade rights. In 1784, Denmark and its allies raised towns and Angolan civilians were forced to flee. The war ended in Anlo defeat; it lost all the territory it had previously acquired and Denmark established a trade monopoly. | Africa |
| Menalamba Rebellion | | 19th | 1895 | 1903 | The Menalamba Rebellion was an uprising in Madagascar by the Sakalava people against French colonial forces. In 1895, France captured the royal palace and a year later officially annexed Madagascar and declared it a colony. The Queen and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power. Popular resistance sparked a guerrilla war against foreigners, Christianity, and political corruption. The uprising spread rapidly, but by 1897 hunger forced many rebel groups to surrender. The rebellion continued sporadically in remote areas until 1903. | Africa |
| Second Congo War | Great War of Africa | 20th, 21st | 2 August 1998 | 18 July 2003 | The Second Congo War, also known as the Great War of Africa, began in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in 1998, a year after the First Congo War. The new government permitted Hutu armies to regroup in eastern Congo, resulting in a 1998 Rwanda-Uganda joint invasion. The five-year conflict saw government forces supported by Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe pitted against rebels and soldiers backed by Uganda and Rwanda. In 2002, the government negotiated deals with Rwanda, Uganda, and internal rebel groups. The war officially ended when the transitional DRC government took power in 2003. | Africa |
| First Congo War | Africa’s First World War | 20th | 24 October 1996 | 16 May 1997 | The First Congo War, also known as Africa’s First World War, was a military conflict mostly in Zaire (present-day DRC). Zaire saw regional conflicts and growing resentments of government corruption after the Congo Crisis. When Rwanda invaded Zaire in 1996 to defeat rebel groups in the country, Uganda, Burundi, Angola, and Eritrea swiftly joined the invasion. The Zairean government was supported by allied militias and Sudan but soon collapsed, culminating in a foreign invasion and installing a new government but little political change; instability led to the Second Congo War in 1998. | Africa |
| Bailundo Revolt | | 20th | 15 May 1902 | 22 March 1904 | The Bailundo Revolt was an uprising by the Ovimbundu Kingdom of Bailundo (in present-day Angola) against Portuguese colonial authorities. In 1902, the price of root rubber plummeted in the region, causing an economic depression. This, with a smallpox epidemic and famine, led to rising hostilities that peaked an indigenous population insurrection against European immigrants and aboriginal loyalists. Ovimbundu troops launched raids on Portuguese trading posts and were countered by Portuguese, African and Boer troops; the Ovimbudu continued resistance in remote areas until 1904. | Africa |
| Bale Revolt | Bale Peasant Movement | 20th | 1963 | 1970 | The Bale Revolt, also known as the Bale Peasant Movement, was an uprising in Bale, Ethiopia, by local Oromo and Somali people against the feudalist systems of the Ethiopian Empire in the 1960s. Discontent among Oromo and Somali peasants rose rapidly in the early 1960s in response to bureaucratic corruption and the expropriation of land. In 1963, the local population refused to pay a new exorbitant head tax and skirmishes began, which turned into six-year-long guerrilla war. Military engineers from Britain and the US helped the Ethiopian government to quell the insurgency by 1970. | Africa |
| Barra War | Anglo-Niumi War | 19th | 1831 | 1832 | The Barra War, also known as the Anglo-Niumi War, was a conflict of the 1830s between the Kingdom of Niumi, now in The Gambia, and the British Empire. Britain aimed to cut off French competition in the Gambia River. The French were still able to trade by accessing their settlement in Niumi without British interference. Tensions rose as Britain encroached on the Kingdom of Niumi and founded a fort there. When Britain set troops to defend it, fighting broke out in 1831. When significant support arrived from Sierra Leone, the war was ended with a treaty in 1832. | Africa |
| Kolongongo War | | 20th | 1914 | 1917 | The Kolongongo War was a conflict of 1914 between Portuguese colonial forces and the Mbunda, a Bantu people who migrated from northern to south-eastern Angola and then to present-day Zambia. Immediately before the First World War, Portugal sought to expand its powers in Africa, and the Mbunda responded with resistance in an effort to defend their land and rights. The war resulted in the Portuguese conquest of the Mbunda in East Angola and the dissolution of the ancient Kingdom of Kongo. By the 1920s, Portugal established full colonial control over their entire territory. | Africa |
| Malagasy Uprising | Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947 | 20th | 29 March 1947 | February 1949 | The Malagasy Uprising, also known as Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947, was a nationalist insurgency against French colonial rule in Madagascar in the late-1940s. Since the end of the Second World War, Madagascan politicians sought independence legally but the Socialist Ramadier administration’s response radicalised many Malagasy people. In 1947, Malagasy nationalists coordinated attacks on French military bases and plantations. France responded by transferring soldiers from other colonies in Africa, engaging in terror tactics, and violently repressed the rebellion by 1949. | Africa |
| Nandi Resistance | | 19th, 20th | 1890 | 1906 | The Nandi Resistance was a military conflict between members of the Kalenjin people and British colonial authorities in present-day Kenya from 1890-1905. In the late 19th century, resistance by local populations to British colonial rule was growing in the region. The Nandi people sought to protect their homelands from colonial domination, and an uprising ensued in 1895. The conflict lasted for a decade until 1905 when a British colonel asked to meet the Nandi leader to negotiate a truce but proceeded to shoot him and his entourage upon arrival. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fomena | | 19th | 14 March 1874 | | The Treaty of Fomena was signed by representatives of the Ashanti Empire and the British Empire on 14 March 1874. During the 19th century, the British fought multiple wars with the Ashantis in the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). The Ashanti sought to control coastal states, while Britain aimed to establish a protectorate and keep other colonial forces away from gold reserves. The wars ended in Ashanti defeat, and a treaty was drawn up. The Ashanti were to pay 50,000 ounces of gold to the British, renounce their claims to key areas, withdraw their troops and end the practice of human sacrifice. | Africa |
| Congo–Arab War | Belgo-Arab War | 19th | 1892 | 1894 | The Congo–Arab War, also known as the Belgo–Arab War, was a proxy war in Central Africa between the forces of Belgian King Leopold II's Congo Free State and various Zanzibari Arab slave traders, all of whom were contending for control of Congo’s wealth—in particular, its ivory trade—in the late-19th century. Leopold II had once collaborated with the Swahili-Arab economic and political powers but began a war in 1892 under the pretext of a Christian anti-slavery crusade. After two years, the war ended in a victory for the Congo Free State by early 1894. | Africa |
| Western Desert Campaign | Desert War | 20th | 11 June 1940 | 4 February 1943 | The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the main theatre in the North African Campaign of the Second World War. The war saw many Allied and Axis forces pitted against each other; it began in 1940 with the Italian declaration of war and the invasion of Egypt from Libya. The British responded with military raids. Mussolini sought help from Hitler, who sent a small German force to Tripoli in early 1941. Many battles were waged over several years until the remaining Axis forces surrendered to the combined Allied forces in May 1943 during the Tunisian campaign. | Africa |
| Kamerun Campaign | Cameroons Campaign | 20th | 6 August 1914 | 10 March 1916 | The Kamerun Campaign, also known as the Cameroons Campaign, took place in the German colony of Kamerun during the First World War. After British, French and Belgian forces invaded the colony in August 1914, most of the campaign took place in Kamerun, which is largely present-day Cameroon. The campaign ended in an Allied victory in 1916. German troops and the colony’s civil administration fled to the nearby neutral colony of Spanish Guinea (Río Muni) and Kamerun became the League of Nations mandates of French Cameroon and British Cameroon by the Treaty of Versailles. | Africa |
| Treaty of Bardo | Treaty of Qsar es-S'id | 19th | 12 May 1881 | | The Treaty of Bardo, also known as the Treaty of Qsar es-S’id, was signed in 1881 and established a French protectorate over Tunisia that remained until the Second World War. A raid on Algeria by a Tunisian tribe had been a pretext for French colonial forces to invade Tunisia a month earlier. The treaty allowed France to control areas of Tunisia and its foreign-policy decisions. The Conventions of La Marsa, which followed two years later, permitted France to intervene in Tunisia’s domestic affairs, which thereby took away the country’s autonomy almost entirely. | Africa |
| Treaty of Angra de Cintra | | 20th | 1 April 1958 | | The Treaty of Angra de Cintra, signed by Spain and Morocco on 1 April 1958, brought an official end to the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Spain had handed over control of the north of the protectorate in 1956, but retained control of the Tarfaya Strip in the south. The treaty stipulated that Spain would return control of this zone to Morocco, though it specified no timeline for the evacuation of Spanish troops from any part of the former protectorate. It also made no mention of any of Morocco’s other territorial claims against Spain in the Sahara or the Mediterranean. | Africa |
| Lagos Treaty of Cession | Treaty of Cession, 6 August 1861 | 19th | 6 August 1861 | | The Lagos Treaty of Cession, also known as the Treaty of Cession, was signed on 6 August 1861 by representatives of the British Empire and Oba Dosunmu, ruler of the Kingdom of Lagos in present-day Nigeria. In the mid-century, Lagos was a key slave trading port. In 1851, Britain entered on this pretext, and—motivated by the threat of nearby French troops—sought to shore up control of the area with a treaty. Under threat of military bombardment, Dosunmu was forced to cede Lagos Island to British colonisers. He retained the title of Oba and his powers, though these were subject to English law. | Africa |
| Togoland Campaign | | 20th | 6 August 1914 | 26 August 1914 | The Togoland Campaign was an invasion by Britain and France of Togoland (a German colony in present-day Ghana and Togo) during the First World War. The Kamina wireless station aided communication between Germany, its navy and overseas colonies, and the Allies sought to prevent its use to coordinate Atlantic attacks. In August 1916, British and French forces advanced from the neighbouring colonies of Gold Coast and Dahomey; Germany surrendered the colony within three weeks. Togoland was partitioned; in 1922, British Togoland and French Togoland were established as League of Nations mandates. | Africa |
| Fifth Xhosa War | War of Nxele | 19th | 1818 | 1819 | The Fifth Xhosa War, also known as the War of Nxele, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. A dispute over animal-herding territory between two Xhosa peoples, the Ngqika and the Gcaleka, sparked a civil war in 1818; a defence treaty legally required the Cape Colony to assist the former. In 1819, 10,000 Xhosa attacked the garrison at Grahamstown. The British authorities repelled them and pushed them eastwards. The empty territory was designated a buffer zone and declared to be off-limits for any side's military occupation. | Africa |
| Seventh Xhosa War | Amatola War | 19th | 1846 | 1847 | The Seventh Xhosa War, also known as the Amatola War, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. The war was sparked by ongoing unrest as a result of British attempts at colonisation and Xhosa resistance to their ongoing dispossession. In 1846, British colonial troops were joined by local mixed-race “Burgher forces,” comprising Khoi and Fengu people as well as British settlers and Boer commandos. By the end of 1847, the Xhosa had been completely subdued after nearly two years of conflict. | Africa |
| Eighth Xhosa War | Mlanjeni's War | 19th | 24 December 1850 | 1853 | The Eighth Xhosa War, also known as Mlanjeni’s War, was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire in present-day South Africa. Large numbers of Xhosa people were displaced by colonial authorities, leading to overpopulation outside the colony and the continued oppression of those who remained. In 1850, exorbitant taxes were imposed on local people, as were extreme drought and renewed displacement efforts; in response, many Xhosa mobilised, and a two-year war ensued. This most brutal of all the nine wars ended in the total subjugation of the Ciskei Xhosa. | Africa |
| Second Anglo-Ashanti War | | 19th | 1863 | 1864 | The Second Anglo-Ashanti War was one of five conflicts in the 19th century between the Ashanti Empire (in present-day Ghana) and the British Empire and its African allies. Except for a few minor skirmishes, the three decades following the end of the First Anglo-Ashanti War in 1831 had seen peace between the Ashanti and the British. In 1863, a significant Asante delegation crossed a regional boundary to pursue a fugitive and fighting broke out between the British and the Ashanti. The war ended in a stalemate within a year after many troops on both sides were struck down by sickness. | Africa |
| Fourth Xhosa War | | 19th | 1811 | 1812 | The Fourth Xhosa War was one of nine frontier wars between the Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire (in the present-day Eastern Cape in South Africa). By the late 18th century, tensions were high between British colonisers and the cattle-herding Xhosa people whom they displaced. In 1811, the Xhosa occupied the Zuurveld, an area which had acted as a buffer zone between the Cape Colony and Xhosa territory. Conflicts with settlers who encroached on the area ensued, and expeditionary troops from the Cape Colony were sent to force the Xhosa out of the zone. | Africa |
| Shifta War | Gaf Daba | 20th | 1963 | 1967 | The Shifta War, also known as Gaf Daba, was a conflict in which ethnic Somalis in the Northern Frontier District (NFD) of Kenya attempted to join Somalia in the mid-1960s. After the dissolution of all its colonies in East Africa, Britain granted administration of the NFD to Kenya despite both the overwhelming desire of the population to join the Somali Republic and the fact of the NFD’s almost exclusively ethnic Somali population. A fierce war broke out in 1963. The war was ended by a ceasefire in 1967, though unrest continued for decades after. | Africa |
| Treaty of Fort Bullen | | 19th | 4 January 1832 | | The Treaty of Fort Bullen was signed on 4 January 1832 by representatives of the British Empire and the Kingdom of Niumi (in present-day The Gambia). The treaty brought an end to the Barra War, also known as the Anglo-Niumi War, which had broken out in 1831 after British troops encroached on Niumi territory to cut off French trade competition. When significant British support arrived from Sierra Leone, the Niumi king indicated he was willing to open negotiations and a treaty was drawn up and then signed at Fort Bullen. The treaty’s precise terms are unknown. | Africa |
| Bafut Wars | Mankon-Zintgraff Wars | 19th, 20th | 1891 | 1907 | The Bafut Wars, also known as the Mankon-Zintgraff Wars, were a series of conflicts from 1891-1907 between the troops of the Fon of Bafut (the ruler of the Kingdom of Bafut in present-day Cameroon) and German colonial forces, which were supported by troops of rival fandoms. Tensions were rising in the region around the turn of the century, as the Germans demanded ivory from Bafut and the Bafut people resisted the German encroachment on their region. Nearly two decades of conflict ended with the defeat of the Fon, and his kingdom was made part of the German protectorate of Kamerun. | Africa |
| Mahdist War | Anglo–Sudan War | 19th | 1881 | 1899 | The Mahdist War, also known as the Anglo-Sudan War, was a conflict between the Mahdist Sudanese and colonial Egyptian forces, which were later joined by British troops. Since 1819, Sudan had been governed by an Egyptian administration that was unpopular among the Sudanese not least because of harsh taxation and the abolition of the slave trade. An uprising against the foreign rulers by Mahdists began in 1881, and the war endured for nearly two decades. It ended in 1899 with the establishment nominally joint-rule state of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which gave Britain de facto control over Sudan. | Africa |
| Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 10 July 1999 | | The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was a treaty signed on 10 July 1999 by Angola, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Signed in Lusaka, Zambia, it was intended to end the Second Congo War. Under its terms, military operations would cease, prisoners of war would be released, and a Joint Military Commission would identify and disarm militias in the Congo, especially those linked to the 1994 Rwandan genocide. In the following months, however, all parties accused the others of breaking the agreement’s terms and fighting continued for several years. | Africa |
| Soninke-Marabout War | | 19th | 1850 | April 1856 | The Soninke-Marabout War was a mid-19th century civil war between the Soninke (ruling class of the Kingdom of Kombo in The Gambia) and Marabouts, a Muslim faction not represented in Kombo’s governance. By 1850, Marabout villages in Kombo had formed a confederacy to contest Soninke authority. Demonstrations began, which led to fully-fledged fighting by 1851. Parts of Kombo had been ceded by the Soninke to the British Empire since 1816 and the British intervened twice in the war, both times storming the Marabout town of Sabbajee. A peace treaty was drawn up in 1956 and mediated by the British. | Africa |
| Sun City Agreement | | 21st | 2 April 2003 | | The Sun City Agreement was an accord signed on 2 April 2003 by Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The intention was to bring an end to the Second Congo War, establish a unified, multi-party government and a timeline for democratic elections in the DRC. A partial agreement was reached by the government, a Uganda-backed armed opposition group and the majority of unarmed opposition groups. However, a Rwanda-backed armed movement and several unarmed groups refused to sign. Parties were not able to establish a new constitution and government and the agreement did not stop the conflict. | Africa |
| Mauretanio-Sahraoui Agreement | Algiers Agreement | 20th | 10 August 1979 | | The Mauretanio-Sahraoui Agreement, also known as the Algiers Agreement, was an accord signed by Mauritania and the Polisario guerrilla movement in 1979. The Polisario Front had been in conflict since 1976 with Mauritania and Morocco, for the independence of the southern half of Western Sahara. The war was a major drain on Mauritanian finances. Under the agreement’s terms, Mauritania renounced all claims to the mineral-rich territory. Morocco disputed Mauritania’s right to withdraw from its part of the former Spanish colony and continued the war to defend its part of Western Sahara. | Africa |
| Maji Maji Rebellion | | 20th | July 1905 | August 1907 | The Maji Maji Rebellion was an armed rebellion of Islamic and animist Africans against German colonial rule in German East Africa (present-day Tanzania) from 1905-07. At the turn of the century, Germany had a relatively weak hold on the colony of German East Africa and resorted to violent tactics to control its population and relied heavily on forced labour to build roads and grow cotton for export. In 1905, in open rebellion, insurgents used magic to unify their cause to drive out the colonisers. The war led to famine, caused in large part by the German military governance’s genocidal policies. | Asia |
| First Jewish–Roman War | Great Jewish Revolt | 1st | 66 | 73 | The First Jewish-Roman War, also known as The Great Jewish Revolt, was the first of three notable rebellions of the Jewish people against the Roman Empire. It took place in Roman-controlled Judea, present-day Israel. A series of clashes between the Romans and Jewish people escalated with anti-taxation protests and attacks on Romans in the lead-up to the rebellion. In 66 AD, the Jews expelled the Romans from Jerusalem and formed a revolutionary government. Roman armies fought back, which resulted in the burning of the Temple, the destruction of towns and the collapse of the Jewish state. | Asia |
| Kitos War | | 2nd | 115 | 117 | The Kitos War was an uprising of Jewish people in Cyrenaica, present-day Libya. Whilst Roman armies focused on fighting in Trajan’s Parthian War, the movement spread into revolts in Egypt, Cyprus and Judea, present-day Israel. Other cities with substantial Jewish populations in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq, and present-day Turkey also joined in the uprising, which was known for its brutality and human tragedy. The revolt ended with the Roman army forcing the rebels into hardship in Lydda, present-day Lod, Israel. | Asia |
| Bar Kokhba Revolt | Third Jewish–Roman War | 2nd | 132 | 135 | The Bar Kokhba revolt, or the Third Jewish-Roman War, happened in Judea, present-day Israel. The Jewish people strove to restore an independent Judean state after a rise in Roman military presence in Judea, restrictions on Jewish religious observances, the construction of a new city in Jerusalem and a temple to Jupiter on Temple Mount. The revolt’s outcome consisted of many casualties on both sides and the extensive depopulation of Jewish people and Judean villages where, according to Christian sources, the Jewish people were forbidden from entering Jerusalem. | Asia |
| Trajan’s Parthian War | | 2nd | 115 | 117 | The Trajan’s Parthian War was the Roman Emperor Trajan’s invasion against the Parthian Empire in the historical region of Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. In 114, the Romans invaded and annexed Armenia as a Roman province. In 115, they annexed upper Mesopotamia before capturing the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, southeast of present-day Baghdad. The Parthians fought back at the Romans while revolts happened elsewhere, and Roman military resources were under pressure. Trajan installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates as a client ruler and withdrew to Syria. | Asia |
| Second Anglo-Afghan War | | 19th | 1878 | 1880 | The Second Anglo-Afghan War between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan was part of the Great Game of the British and Russian Empires’ rivalry in Afghanistan and Central and South Asia. Britain wanted to ensure that Afghanistan remained free from Russian interference, and in November 1878, they invaded Afghanistan via India. A treaty was signed, but peace was short-lived. A second campaign followed where British forces were dispatched again. The siege ended with an agreement for Afghanistan to be a buffer between the British and Russian Empires. | Asia |
| Indian Rebellion of 1857 | First War of Independence | 19th | 1857 | 1859 | The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as The First War of Independence, was a major uprising against British rule in India. The pretext of the revolt was rising discontent between the Sepoys in service to the British East India Company and invasive British social reforms. The Sepoy’s rebellion began in Meerut and led to the seizing of Delhi, where they nominally restored the Mughal emperor. The Sepoys captured large parts of the North-Western Provinces until British operations suppressed the rebellion. Peace was declared in 1859. | Asia |
| Third Anglo-Burmese War | Third Burma War | 19th | 7 November 1885 | 29 November 1885 | The Third Anglo-Burmese War, also known as the Third Burma War, occurred in November 1885. It followed two previous wars between the Burmese and Britain’s concern about a political alliance between Burma and France. After a dispute over a fine on the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation and Britain’s claims that the Burmese courts were corrupt, the British demanded that Burma submit to British control. The war resulted in the loss of the Konbang Dynasty’s sovereign rule in Upper Burma, with all of Burma coming under the power of the British Raj as a province of British India. | Asia |
| Turkish War of Independence | | 20th | 1919 | 1923 | The Turkish War of Independence occurred after World War I, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and when parts of Anatolia were occupied by the Allies and partitioned in the Treaty of Sèvres. The Turkish National Movement was led by Mustafa Kemal Pasha, also known as Atatürk, who led a series of military campaigns following the Greeks’ occupation of Izmir in 1919. After multiple battles, the Allies left present-day Turkey, and settlements were achieved with the Treaty of Kars in 1921 and the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. The Republic of Turkey was established on 29 October 1923. | Asia |
| Franco-Syrian War | | 20th | 1920 | 25 July 1920 | The Franco-Syrian War occurred between France and the Hashemites of the Arab Kingdom. In 1920 the French asserted control over the whole country when the French high commissioner for Syria, General Gouraud, demanded that King Feisel of Syria accept a French mandate in two days. The King requested an extension and accepted after four days. The French invaded Damascus, and the war resulted in a French victory with a pro-French government in Syria and the exile of the Hashemite King Faisal to Iraq, where he became the new King. | Asia |
| Armenian Genocide | | 20th | 1915 | 1916 | The Armenian Genocide happened during World War I and refers to the genocide of Armenian people living in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman’s military and territorial losses led to a fear that the Armenians would seek independence in their homeland and be persuaded to join enemy troops. The Ottomans arrested and deported Armenian intellectuals and leaders from present-day Istanbul before death marches and concentration camps ensued, whilst women and children were forcibly converted to Islam. The genocide ended more than two thousand years of Armenian civilisation in eastern Anatolia. | Asia |
| Treaty of Gandamak | | 19th | 26 May 1879 | Date and year unknown | The Treaty of Gandamak was signed by King Mohammad Yaqub Khan of Afghanistan and Sir Louis Cavagnari of British India to end the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The Amir surrendered control over Afghani foreign relations policy and agreed to a British Mission in Kabul. The treaty is considered the prelude to the second phase of The Second Anglo-Afghan War, when the British Mission in Kabul were massacred, and another British invasion followed. King Mohammad Yaqub Khan was expelled to India, and in 1880, the British appointed a new Amir who accepted the treaty. | Asia |
| Byzantine-Ottoman Wars | | 13th, 14th, 15th | 1299 | 1479 | The Byzantine-Ottoman Wars were a series of conflicts between the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires, which resulted in an Ottoman victory and the rise of their Empire after the Fall of Constantinople, present-day Istanbul, Turkey, in 1451. The Byzantine Empire was in chaos, and morale was weak. The wars between 1299 to 1479 included multiple sieges and the Battle of Ankara, Bapheus, Dimbos and Pelekanon, all located in present-day Turkey. They concluded with the loss of the Byzantine Empire. | Asia |
| Cyprus Emergency | Greek Cypriot War of Independence | 20th | 1955 | 1959 | The Cyprus Emergency, also known as the Greek Cypriot War of Independence, was a military campaign against British rule in Cyprus. Greek Cypriots were dissatisfied with British rule in Cyprus and wanted a union with Greece. They formed The National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters, a guerrilla campaign to drive out the British. The British, who had ruled Cyprus since 1878, fought back as they wanted to base the Suez military headquarters in Cyprus. The uprisings ended with the London-Zürich Agreements that established the Republic of Cyprus, a non-partitioned independent state. | Asia |
| Duar War | Anglo-Bhutan War | 19th | 1864 | 1865 | The Duar War, also known as the Anglo-Bhutan War, occurred when Britain made multiple missions into Bhutan during the 19th century, with cross-border raids by Bhutan as the cause recorded in official documents. Modern historians note Britain’s imperial aims as the pretext for the interest in Bhutan. While the civil war was taking place, Britain sent a peace envoy to Bhutan, but this was rejected. In November 1864, Britain declared war. The conflict lasted five months and resulted in a treaty where Bhutan lost 20 per cent of its territory and occupied territories in return for an annual subsidy. | Asia |
| Egyptian Revolution of 1919 | | 20th | 1919 | 1919 | The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was between Egyptians against the British protectorate of Egypt and Sudan. Egyptians were dissatisfied with the British occupying Egypt during World War I and expected self-government due to Allied promises made during the war. The British role as a protectorate of Egypt was to protect the British Empire to the east. Social unrest and support for Egypt’s independence led to uprisings, demonstrations and strikes. The British issued a unilateral declaration of Egypt’s independence in 1922. | Asia |
| Portuguese-Egyptian Mamluk Naval War | | 16th | 1505 | 1517 | The Portuguese-Egyptian Mamluk War was a naval conflict between the Egyptian Mamluk state and the Portuguese Empire. The war followed the Portuguese expansion of their Empire in Calicut, where trade links between India and Egypt were interrupted, and the Portuguese destroyed Arab ships. The Portuguese wished to monopolise the Euro-Indian spice trade and stop the spice trade through the Red Sea, while the Mamluks allied with the Venetians, whose trade links were also interrupted. The conflict ended with the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate by the Ottomans in 1517. | Asia |
| Egyptian Revolution of 1952 | | 20th | 23 July 1952 | 23 July 1952 | The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 began with a coup to overthrow King Farouk thought to be corrupt, pro-British, and to blame for the country’s losses in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The Revolution itself was led by the Free Officers Movement and aimed to end the constitutional monarchy, secure Sudan’s independence, and end the British occupation of Egypt. The Revolt led to the establishment of the Republic of Egypt in 1953, and the last British troops left Egypt in June 1956. | Asia |
| Muslim–Quraysh War | | 7th | 13 March 0624 | Date contested | The Muslim–Quraysh War was a six-year-long conflict in Hejaz in present-day Saudi Arabia. The war was a military and religious conflict between early Muslims led by the Prophet Muhammad and the Arab Quraysh Tribe. It began with the Battle of Badr, after which more battles and an invasion followed until the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah established an armistice between the Muslims, the Quraysh and their allies. Allies of the Quraysh violated the treaty, attacking allies of the Muslims. The conflict ended with the conquest of Mecca and the fall of the Quraysh Tribe. | Asia |
| Treaty of Hudaybiyyah | | 7th | 628 | Date and year unknown | The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was a peace treaty between the Prophet Muhammad and the Quraysh Tribe of Mecca. Muhammad represented the state of Medina and his early Muslim followers. The treaty agreed on ten years of peace between Medina and Qurayshi-ruled Mecca. It also enabled Muhammad and his followers to return to Mecca on a peaceful pilgrimage, now known as The First Pilgrimage. The treaty itself was an indirect recognition of the Islamic state in Medina. When Muhammad died in 632 AD, almost all tribes of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. | Asia |
| Arab–Byzantine Wars | | 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th | 629 | Date and year unknown | The Arab-Byzantine Wars were a series of conflicts between the 7th and 11th centuries. It was between the Muslim Arab dynasties of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates and the Byzantine Empire. In 629, Muhammad sent letters to the Kings of Persia, Yemen and Ethiopia and the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius to accept Islam. Syria and Egypt came under Muslim Arab rule, but the Byzantines controlled areas in Asia Minor. The war consisted of sieges and battles for these Byzantine-ruled areas. Conflict continued between the Byzantine and Islamic Empires, which shifted into the Byzantine-Seljuk Wars. | Asia |
| Ridda Wars | Wars of Apostasy | 7th | 632 | 633 | The Ridda Wars, or the Wars of Apostasy, were a series of military engagements between the Rashidun Caliphate and rebel forces of Arabian tribes, apostates and self-proclaimed prophets. Rebels had renounced their allegiance to the Islamic Empire after the death of Muhammad. Abu Bakr, the first elected Caliph, sought to defeat the rebellions, unite the tribes and consolidate control of the region. Tulayha led the first attack on the Caliphate to capture Medina. The wars resulted in the defeat of the rebellions and the Rashidun Caliphate securing control of the Arabian Peninsula. | Asia |
| Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 | Treaty of Rawalpindi | 20th | 8 August 1919 | Date and year unknown | The Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919, also known as The Treaty of Rawalpindi, was a peace treaty between Britain and Afghanistan. The treaty marked the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War that began after the new ruler of Afghanistan, Amānullāh Khan, announced the country’s independence from Britain. The treaty recognised Afghanistan as an independent country with the Durand line as their border. It also saw the end of Afghanistan’s subsidy from Britain, the receipt of funds from their neutral position in World War I and the country’s import of arms through India. | Asia |
| Soviet–Afghan War | | 20th | 1979 | 1989 | The Soviet-Afghan War was an armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Uprisings against the new Afghan communist government from anti-communist Islamic guerrillas forming the Afghan mujahideen prompted Soviet troops to enter. The new Afghan communist government had little popular support due to the social and land reforms from the mainly anti-communist and Muslim populations. The Soviets intervened, in support of the government, to uphold the Soviet-Afghan Friendship Treaty of 1978 but withdrew after the United States entered to support the mujahideen. | Asia |
| Zaraniq Rebellion | | 20th | 1909 | 1910 | The Zaraniq Rebellion occurred in Yemen Vilayet, present-day Yemen, where the Zaraniq Tribe rose against the Ottoman Empire. The uprising began due to the Zaraniq’s opposition to the extension of telegraph lines through their territory and the fact that the Ottomans rejected their demand for the imprisoned sons of their leaders to be released. The Ottomans responded to the resistance with force, refusing amnesty to the Zaraniq Tribe unless they were unarmed. The fighting between the two sides was inconclusive. It is unclear if this offer was accepted. | Asia |
| Carnatic Wars | | 18th | 1744 | 1763 | The Carnatic Wars consisted of three conflicts directly resulting from the English-French rivalry in Europe and India. The British, French, Marathas and Mysore fought for control over the eastern coastal strip of India and the Carnatic region, which was a dependency of Hyderabad State. Regional succession disputes and India’s unsettled political situation led the French East India Company and the British East India Company to intervene. The third and final Carnatic War, or Seven Years’ War, saw the British defeat the French. The war concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. | Asia |
| Russo-Persian War | | 19th | 1804 | 1813 | The Russo-Persian War was between the Persian Empire and Imperial Russia. Persia wanted to consolidate present-day Georgia, annexed by Russia after the Russo-Persian War of 1796. Both the Persian king and Russian Tsar wanted control of the disputed territories. Russia’s attack and capture of Ganja, Azerbaijan, started the war and was perceived as a direct threat to the Iranian royal dynasty of Qajar rule. The war ended with the Treaty of Gulistan, in which Georgia, Dagestan, present-day Azerbaijan, and parts of Armenia ceded to Imperial Russia. | Asia |
| Yemen Civil War | | 21st | 2014 | Ongoing | The Yemeni Civil War began when the Islamist political Houthi movement took control of Yemen’s capital, Sana’a. The Houthi takeover in Yemen followed, forcing the then-president Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to flee. There had been long-standing unresolved conflict between the government and the Houthis, who had captured territory in the north whilst civilians were increasingly discontent with the government and the regional partitioning of the country. Since 2015 there have been failed ceasefires and alliances, leaving Yemen in an economic and humanitarian crisis and political stalemate. | Asia |
| Treaty of Gulistan | | 19th | 1813 | | The Treaty of Gulistan was a peace treaty between the Russian Empire and Iran. The treaty concluded the 1804-1813 Russo-Persian War after Russia stormed Lankaran in Persia, present-day Azerbaijan, near the Southern border of Iran. Russia had wanted to expand their control over its neighbouring territories, and Persia had wanted to reassert control over Georgia and protect its north-western borders. The treaty confirmed the ceding and inclusion of territories from Iran into the Russian Empire. | Asia |
| Bengal War | | 18th | 1756 | 1765 | The Bengal War between 1756 and 1765 was between the Mughal Empire and the British East India Company. The Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, wanted to recapture Bengal from the British, who had annexed Bengal since the Seven Years’ War and refused to pay taxes to the Mughal Empire. Emperor Shah Alam II announced war and formed a coalition with the Nawab of Bengal. The decisive Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar were both part of this war, concluding in a victory for the British East India Company. | Asia |
| Siege of Trichinopoly | | 18th | 1743 | 1743 | The Siege of Trichinopoly took place in Trichinopoly, present-day Tamil Nadu, under Maratha rule. The Nizam of Hyderabad was enraged by the Maratha’s control over the region, which had been an autonomous dominion of the Mughal Empire under Nizam’s control. Additionally, Dalavayi Devarajaiya, a maharaja of Mysore, offered the Nizam 10,000,000 rupees in return for Trichinopoly. The Nizam ordered a siege, and the Marathas surrendered Trichonopoly and the Madurai territory. The Nizam regained control over the region. | Asia |
| Suez Crisis | Second Arab-Israeli War | 20th | 1956 | 1956 | The Suez Crisis, or the Second Arab-Israeli War or Tripartite Aggression, began when Israel invaded Egypt, followed by the United Kingdom and France. Israel wanted to reopen the blocked sea passages between the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas, the Straits of Tiran. Western powers wanted to regain control of the Suez Canal and remove the Egyptian president who had nationalised the Suez Canal Company. The conflict concluded with a military peacekeeping operation from the United Nations that would police the Egyptian-Israeli border and end the blockade of the Straits of Tiran. | Asia |
| Treaty of Georgievsk | | 18th | 24 July 1783 | | The Treaty of Georgievsk was between the Russian Empire and Kartli-Kakheti. Catherine the Great and Heraclius II signed the treaty. The treaty guaranteed Georgia’s territorial integrity against the threat of Ottoman invasion and the continuation of the Bagratid dynasty while establishing eastern Georgia as a protectorate of Russia, where Russia would have a say in their foreign affairs. Russia would defend Georgia, and Georgia would support Russia in war. Russia failed to uphold their end of the deal and did nothing to help Kartli-Kakhetivery during the Battle of Krtsanisi in 1795. | Asia |
| First Lebanon War | | 20th | 06 June 1982 | 1985 | The First Lebanon War was an Israeli military invasion of Southern Lebanon. The attack followed previous conflicts between the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and the Israeli Defence Forces. The war began after Abu Nidal’s Organisation, a Palestinian nationalist group, who were enemies of PLO, attempted to assassinate Israel’s ambassador to the United Kingdom. Israel attacked and occupied Lebanon but withdrew to the south while the Lebanese Civil War was ongoing and Syrian influence in Lebanon increased. | Asia |
| Roman–Persian Wars | | 7th | Date and year unknown | 627 | The Roman–Persian Wars were a series of military conflicts between the Greco-Roman Empire and the Parthian and Sasanian Empires of Iran. Both sides were imperial powers who wanted to establish and secure territories and overcome regional divides. After decades of fighting, the wars concluded with the early Muslim conquests, leading to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire. | Asia |
| Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628 | | 7th | 602 | 628 | The Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628 was the final war in a series of conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire of Iran. The conflict began when the Eastern Roman Emperor Maurice was murdered by Phocas, who had led the mutiny of 602 and then became Emperor. Maurice had helped Khosrow II, the Sasanian king, to regain his throne, and his murder invoked Khosrow II to declare war on the Byzantines. Both sides exhausted their resources during the war, which led to a status quo after the Sasanians withdrew from occupied territories. | Asia |
| Byzantine-Seljuk Wars | | 11th | 1048 | 1380 | The Byzantine-Seljuk Wars were a series of battles between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuks Turks, resulting in a shift in power over Syria and West Asia from the Byzantines to the Seljuks. The Byzantine Empire, weakened by rebellions, lacked in numbers to defend its territories. Seljuk Turks from Central Asia were expanding westward, where they migrated to Persia and invaded present-day Kayseri and Konya in Turkey. The Byzantines wanted to regain lost territory and led a campaign against the Seljuks in the Battle of Manzikert, which resulted in the Byzantine’s defeat. | Asia |
| Babylonian War | | 4th BC | 312 BC | 310 BC | The Babylonian War was a conflict between the Antigonid dynasty and the Seleucid Empire that followed the disintegration of the Macedonian Empire after Alexander the Great’s death. Antigonus I Monophthalmus held authority over various regions, and he expelled Seleucus I Nicator from Babylon, south of present-day Baghdad, and excluded him from the Peace of the Dynasts. Seleucus aimed to return to his capital Babylon, reinforced with a Macedonian veteran army. Antigonus retreated, and Seleucus regained Babylonia and regions of present-day Iran. | Asia |
| Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555 | | 16th | 1532 | 1555 | The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1532–1555 was a military conflict between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. The two empires’ disputes over territories and the assassination of the governor of Baghdad by the Safavid Empire’s leader, Tahmasp I, led to the outbreak of war. The Ottomans captured land in Tabriz and Baghdad in the first campaign and made further territorial gains in the second campaign. The third campaign saw the Peace of Amasya Treaty between the Safavids and Ottomans, securing territorial gains and returns. | Asia |
| Ottoman–Safavid War of 1623–1639 | | 17th | 1623 | 1639 | The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1623 to 1639 between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires was the last of a series of conflicts regarding control over Mesopotamia, a historical region consisting of present-day Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Syria and Turkey. The Persian Safavid Empire recaptured Baghdad and the majority of present-day Iraq that the Ottomans had previously seized, but the Ottomans fought back and recovered control over Iraq. The Treaty of Zuhab ended the war and settled the Ottoman-Persian frontier. | Asia |
| Greco-Persian Wars | Persian Wars | 5th BC | Date and year unknown | 449 BCE | The Greco-Persian Wars, also known as the Persian Wars, were a series of wars between the Achaemenid Empire of Persia and Greek city-states over almost 50 years. Cyrus the Great, leader of the Achaemenid Empire, conquered the Greek-inhabited ancient region of Ionia, an area south of present-day Izmir. The Ionians rejected Cyrus’ wishes for them to join him in revolt against the Lydians. The Persians struggled to control Ionian cities and appointed tyrants to control them. Battles elsewhere took place, eventually resulting in a Greek victory. | Asia |
| South Yemen Civil War | | 20th | 1986 | 1986 | The South Yemen Civil War happened following rising tensions and ideological differences between two factions of the Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP). Abdul Fattah Ismail had been the YSP’s General Secretary but resigned in 1980, believing his rivals were preparing to assassinate him. Muhammad was his successor, but the YSP became increasingly polarised between Ismail and Muhammad’s supporters. Tensions escalated into conflict, resulting in the death of Ismail and the defeat and exile of al-Toghmah. | Asia |
| Anglo-Turkish War | | 19th | 1807 | 1809 | The Anglo-Turkish War was between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. The war happened after the Ottoman Empire rejected Britain’s demands to surrender the Dardanelles waterway in present-day Turkey, which was only open to the French. The rejection led to the Dardanelles operation and the Alexandria Expedition of 1807, which resulted in a treaty agreeing that no warships should enter the Dardanelles, restoring British privileges in the Ottoman Empire and the promise that Britain would protect the Ottomans against the French. | Asia |
| Simko Shikak Revolt | | 20th | 1918 | 1922 | The Simko Shikak Revolt was an uprising led by Simko Shikak of the Kurdish Shekak Tribe against the Qajar dynasty of Iran from 1918 to 1922. The Ottoman Empire supported the revolt, which consisted of regional invasions to expand areas under Shikak’s control. Eventually, the Iranian army defeated Simko, whose soldiers took refuge in present-day Turkey. Britain and Iraq were accused by the Iranian government of encouraging the unrest. The revolt ended with Brigadier-General Reza Khan’s 1921 coup after he deposed the Qajar dynasty of Iran and defeated rebels, including Simko Shikak. | Asia |
| Saudi-Yemeni War | | 20th | 1934 | 1934 | The Saudi-Yemeni War was a conflict between Saudi Arabia and Yemen which began when the Saudi Kingdom expanded into Yemeni-controlled areas. Yemen and Saudi Arabia both wished to control territory previously under Ottoman rule. Saudi Arabia declared war and captured the cities of Hajara and Najran. Reports are contradictory, stating that Sanaa, Yemen’s capital, was both in upheaval and under the Imam of Yemen’s control. The Treaty of Taif demanded 20 years of peace and concluded the war when Saudi troops left Yemen in July 1934 but remained in other parts of Saudi Arabia. | Asia |
| War of Attrition | | 20th | Date and year unknown | 1970 | The War of Attrition was an inconclusive war between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organisation, and their allies. War commenced as Egypt wanted to regain Sinai from Israel, who had seized the peninsula in the Six-Day War in June 1967. In August 1970, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt agreed to a ceasefire. Egypt’s Alliance with the Soviet Union reignited the conflict by defying the agreement with new military installations, and Israel responded with a large-scale retaliation. | Asia |
| Wars of the Diadochi | | 4th BC, 3rd BC | 322 BCE | 281 BCE | The Wars of the Diadochi, also known as the Wars of Succession, were a series of conflicts led by army generals over tensions about who would rule Alexander the Great’s Empire following his death and the lack of a clear successor. Competition between the commanders escalated, some wanted to keep the Empire intact, and others wanted to establish their own rule. The three-decade-long war resulted in the emergence of three successor states, Macedonia, Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. | Asia |
| Yom Kippur War | Ramadan War | 20th | 1973 | 1973 | The Yom Kippur War, or The Ramadan War, was a conflict between Israel and an Arab coalition of states led by Egypt and Syria. Both wanted to regain territory captured by Israel in the Six-Day War in 1967. Israel had wanted to return the land in exchange for a peace settlement and demilitarisation, but it was not formally or officially proposed. Surprise attacks began on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day, during Islam-observed Ramadan. Egypt and Syria coordinated invasions of the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. Israel fought back and entered Egypt before ceasefires were brokered and imposed. | Asia |
| First Crusade | | 11th | 1095 | Date and year unknown | The First Crusade was a military campaign from the Byzantines, backed by Pope Urban II as a religious quest to capture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Islamic rule under the Seljuk Empire. The Byzantine emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, also saw the war as a chance to control Anatolia. The Seljuks had taken control of most of Anatolia, northern Syria and Jerusalem, which they had seized from their rivals, the Shiite Fatimids. The war consisted of sieges from what is known as the People’s Crusade and the Princes’ Crusade and resulted in Christian rule over Jerusalem. | Asia |
| Mamluk-Ilkhanid War | | 13th | 1260 | 1281 | The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War was between the Ilkhanid Mongols of Persia and the Mamluks of Egypt, where the Ilkhanid Mongols aimed to expand their territory into the Middle East. The Mamluk State in Egypt was a rising power, while a unified Mongol Empire had dissolved. Before the war, the Mongols had made repeated invasions of Syria, followed by forced retreats. The Mamluks maintained the upper hand in the war with victories at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. Following this and the conversion of the Ilkhanid to Islam, the Treaty of Aleppo was signed and ratified in 1323. | Asia |
| Ottoman-Saudi War | Wahhabi War | 19th | 1811 | 1818 | The Ottoman-Saudi War, also known as the Wahhabi War, was between the Ottoman Empire and the first Saudi State, the Emirate of Diriyah, led by the Wahhabi movement. Relations between the Wahhabis and the Ottomans were tense, with political hostility, distrust and a history of sieges and attacks. The Wahhabi leader criticised the religious conditions of the Ottomans, and growing Wahhabi influence incited the Ottomans to warfare with the Saudis. The war began in 1811 with the Ottoman invasion of Hijaz. It ended in 1818 with the Wahhabi surrender and the Emirate of Diriyah’s destruction. | Asia |
| 1485-1491 Ottoman–Mamluk War | | 15th | 1485 | 1491 | The 1485-1491 Ottoman-Mamluk War happened in Anatolia and Syria, where the Ottoman Empire aimed to seize these territories to dominate the Middle East. The Ottomans and Mamluks were already opposed to one another as each wanted to control the spice trade, and the Ottomans wanted to control the Islamic Holy Cities. The war ended when a plague and famine spread, which led to the two sides signing a peace treaty in 1491. | Asia |
| 1516-1517 Ottoman–Mamluk War | | 16th | 1516 | 1517 | The 1516-1517 Ottoman-Mamluk War was a conflict between the Mamluks of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire following a previous war that ended in 1491. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I, was set on conquering the Middle East and focused on the Mamluks. Selim had alleged that the Mamluks oppressed Muslims and were allies of the Shia Safavids. Both sides prepared for the war, which consisted of multiple battles and resulted in the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire’s gain of the Levant, Egypt and Hejaz. | Asia |
| First Egyptian–Ottoman War | First Syrian War | 19th | 1831 | 1833 | The First Egyptian-Ottoman War, also known as the First Syrian War, was a military conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. The war was triggered when the ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, demanded that the Sublime Porte of the Ottoman Empire reward him by extending his rule into Ottoman-ruled Syria. Pasha had already been vying for control of Syria in 1812 but paused these aims. The war concluded after the Battle of Konya in present-day Turkey, resulting in Egypt’s control of Syria and a peace agreement called the Convention of Kütahya. | Asia |
| Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi | | 19th | 8 July 1833 | | The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi was a defensive alliance that was signed in 1833 at Hünkâr İskelesi near Istanbul in present-day Turkey. The treaty was between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. By this point, the Ottomans were a virtual protectorate of Russia. The treaty followed the Ottoman sultan’s request and acceptance of military assistance from Russia in 1833, and in return, the two nations agreed to eight years of peace and friendship. The treaty included a highly controversial secret article regarding the closure of the Dardanelles Strait to any foreign war vessels at Russia’s command. | Asia |
| Kuwait–Najd War | | 20th | 1919 | 1920 | The Kuwait-Najd War from 1919-1920 occurred between Kuwait and Nejd of present-day Saudi Arabia after their leader, Ibn Saud’s, desired to annex Kuwait. The war resulted in many sporadic border clashes between 1919 and 1920 and victory for Ibn Saud. In 1922 the Treaty of Uqair was signed, setting the boundaries between Kuwait and Najd and establishing an area as a Saudi-Kuwaiti neutral zone. However, no representative for Kuwait was present at the conference for the treaty. | Asia |
| Assyrian Affair | Simele Massacre | 20th | 1933 | 1933 | The Assyrian Affair, also known as The Simele Massacre, was committed by Iraq on the Assyrians in the Simele region. When the British mandate of Iraq ended in 1932, the Assyrians felt betrayed at the lack of consideration of an autonomous Assyrian homeland within Iraq. The Iraqis believed the Assyrians’ demands were a British conspiracy to divide Iraq by inciting its minorities. The Assyrian spiritual leader’s followers planned to resign from the Assyrian Levies and regroup as a militia to create an enclave. The massacre resulted in the death of thousands of people. | Asia |
| Anglo-Iraqi War | | 20th | 1941 | 1941 | The Anglo-Iraqi War took place in 1941 between Britain and the Kingdom of Iraq, where Rashid Gaylani seized control of Iraq with assistance from Germany and Italy. Iraq was nominally independent from 1932, but Britain still held on to their authority in Iraq. Their military bases remained in Iraq to protect Britain’s interest and access to Iraqi petroleum, inciting resentment from Iraqis towards the British. The war resulted in the Iraq army surrendering. An armistice was signed, with Iraq reoccupied by the British. | Asia |
| 1948 Palestine War | | 20th | 1948 | 1949 | The 1948 Palestine War, followed a rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine to divide British Mandate Palestine into Jewish and Arab States. Civil war ensued followed by the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The war is known in Israel as the War of Independence, preventing the destruction of the Jewish state by Arab aggression. Palestinian Arabs have referred to it as the destruction of Palestinian society and the expulsion of hundreds of thousands of Arabs from their homes. The war ended with the 1949 Armistice Agreements. | Asia |
| North Yemen Civil War | | 20th | 1962 | 1970 | The North Yemen Civil War was between Mutawakkilite guerrillas and the Yemen Arab Republic’s supporters. Before the war, the Imam, or king, of Yemen, was dethroned by the Yemen Arab Republic, after which a republic was declared. The Mutawakkilites supported the dethroned royals, who wanted to regain control over the country, while the Republicans wanted to hold onto their new rule. Different foreign military powers allied with each side. War continued between the Republicans and royalists until peace talks and a ceasefire in 1970 with recognition of the Republic. | Asia |
| Jordanian Civil War | Black September | 20th | 1970 | 1971 | The Jordanian Civil War, also known as Black September, was fought between the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) and the Jordanian Armed Forces. The 1968 Battle of Karameh led to an upsurge in Arab support for the Fedayeen in Jordan. Some groups within the PLO were calling to overthrow the monarchy. The king of Jordan took action after Dawson's Field hijacking incident in 1970, attacking cities with significant PLO presence, including Amman and Irbid. Allied with Syrian forces, the PLO fought back before retreating. An agreement was signed to regulate the Fedayeen's presence in Jordan. | Asia |
| Lebanese Civil War | | 20th | 1975 | 1990 | The Lebanese Civil War from 1975 to 1990 took place in the context of a destabilised Lebanese State and the presence of Militias. Divisions between the Militias rose between those who supported and opposed Palestinian resistance against Israel on Lebanese land. The war began after the Phalangist Militia attacked a bus of Palestinian refugees. Battles between the Militias followed. During the war, Beirut was split into Muslim West Beirut and Christian East Beirut, each ruled by their respective Militias. The war came to an end with the Ta’if Accord in 1989. | Asia |
| Iran-Iraq War | | 20th | 22 September 1980 | 1988 | The Iran-Iraq War was a conflict from 1980-1988 in which Iraq invaded Iran. There was a long-running history of border disputes between Iran and Iraq and tensions between Iran as a Pan-Islamic force and Iraq’s Arab nationalism. Iran called for an Islamic revolution in Iraq and used this threat as a pretext for their attack on Iran. Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, was also interested in gaining more control of the region. Iraq failed to invade Iran. Iran failed in its retaliation to invade Iraq. The war resulted in a stalemate and a ceasefire. | Asia |
| Iraq War | | 21st | 20 March 2003 | 15 December 2011 | The Iraq War from 2003 to 2011 was an armed conflict in Iraq in which a United States-led coalition overthrew the Iraqi government. The United States claimed that Iraq had a weapons of mass destruction programme and was a threat to the United States and its allies. The war was part of George W. Bush’s war on terror despite no connection between Iraq and the September 11 terror attacks in the United States. Many countries were publicly opposed to a US-led war. The war resulted in the collapse of Iraq’s Ba’athi government and Saddam Hussein’s execution in 2006 | Asia |
| Syrian Civil War | | 21st | 15 March 2011 | Ongoing | The Syrian Civil War is an ongoing civil war with multiple groups in opposition to one another and the Ba’athist Assad dynasty of the Syrian Arab Republic. The factions involved include the Syrian Democratic Forces, the Free Syrian Army and the Islamist organisations ISIL and Hay’ at Taḥrīr al-Shām. War began after protests against the government’s regime and imposed Ba’athist ideology. The government violently suppressed the protests, which escalated into armed conflict. Russia and Iran have openly allied with Assad, and other regions have openly backed the opposition groups. | Asia |
| War in Iraq | | 21st | 30 December 2013 | 09 December 2017 | The War in Iraq between 2013-2017 was an armed conflict between the Islamic State and Iraqi forces and their Allies. Anti-government sentiment from the Sunnis was invoked when they were detained instead of being employed by Iraq’s Shia government after the United States withdrew their troops from Iraq. Anti-government protests followed, and the Islamic State recruited the Sunnis to regain power and advance into Iraq. The Islamic State seized a third of Iraq by 2014, but Iran and a United States-led coalition intervened and allied with Iraq. The war resulted in the Islamic State’s defeat. | Asia |
| Iraqi-Kurdish Civil War | | 20th | 1994 | 1997 | The Iraqi Kurdish Civil War in Iraqi Kurdistan occurred from 1994-1997. Political rivalry between the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Democratic Party of the split parliament of the 1992 elections triggered the conflict. The rivalry was exacerbated by the economic blockade on Kurdistan, where smuggling routes were used. The war between the factions began in May 1994 with intervention from foreign countries. The outcome was a ceasefire and the Washington Peace Agreement, which established shared power and revenue between the Kurdistan groups. | Asia |
| Jebel Akhdar War | Oman War | 20th | 1954 | 1959 | The Jebel Akhdar War, also known as the Oman War, happened in Oman between Omani residents loyal to their Imam and Sultan Said bin Taimur of Muscat and Oman, who aimed to occupy the area, aided by Britain. Britain had a historical presence in the area for political and economic interests. The war between the Omanis and Sultan’s forces began following the grant of an oil concession in the Imam’s region of Oman and the Imam’s declaration of Oman’s independence from Muscat. The Sultanate claimed victory, and treaties were signed that favoured British interests and trade. | Asia |
| Qatar-Bahraini War | Qatari War of Independence | 20th | 1867 | 1868 | The Qatar-Bahraini War, or the Qatari War of Independence, was an armed conflict in the Persian Gulf that violated the 1835 Maritime Truce. Hostilities between Qatar and Bahrain increased over time. Qatar, led by the Al-Thani Tribe, attacked and expelled the Bahrani army in the region. Bahrain allied with Abu Dhabi and attacked Qatar, and naval warfare ensued. The conflict ended with a truce convened by the British that recognised the Al Thanis as a semi-political unit in Qatar and with Bahrain forced to renounce sovereignty on Qatari soil. | Asia |
| Kurdish-Turkish Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1978 | Ongoing | The Kurdish-Turkish Conflict is an ongoing armed conflict between the Republic of Turkey and Kurdish insurgent groups, mainly led by the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). Expressions of Kurdish culture were banned in Turkey, and the Kurdish people campaigned for Kurdish rights, which the Turkish government cracked down on. A civil war began when Kurdish groups wanted independence and to secure the rights of Kurdish people in Turkey. Many cities have been destroyed in violent conflicts, and numerous human rights violations have occurred from both sides. | Asia |
| Convention of Kütahya | Peace Agreement of Kütahya | 19th | 1833 | Date and year unknown | The Convention of Kütahya, also known as the Peace Agreement of Kütahya, concluded the Egyptian-Ottoman War in May 1833, in which Egypt had sought more power in nearby regions and declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman armies were defeated, and foreign countries allied with either side, Britain and France with Egypt, and Russia with the Ottomans. The peace treaty agreed for Syria and Adana to be ceded from the Ottoman Empire to Egypt and to make Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt the governor-general of the provinces. | Asia |
| 2006 Lebanon War | 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War | 21st | July 2006 | August 2006 | The 2006 Lebanon War, or 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, happened between July to August 2006. Lebanon-based Hezbollah had previously attacked Israel because of their occupation of Shebaa Farms at the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli internment of Lebanese prisoners. In the 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid, Hezbollah demanded the release of Lebanese prisoners in exchange for Israeli soldiers. Israel responded by invading Southern Lebanon, and guerrilla warfare followed. A United Nations-brokered ceasefire and Israel’s lift of the naval blockade on Lebanon ended the war. | Asia |
| Treaty of Darin | | 20th | 1915 | | The Treaty of Darin was an agreement signed by the future founder of Saudi Arabia, Abdulaziz, who ruled the Emirate of Nejd and Sir Perry Cox on behalf of the British government. The treaty was signed on Tārūt Island, present-day Saudi Arabia. It agreed for the House of Saud to be a British protectorate and guaranteed Kuwait, Qatar and the Trucial States (present-day United Arab Emirates) sovereignty. It was the first treaty to give international recognition to the emerging Saudi state, while Britain aimed for the treaty to secure their protectorates in the Persian Gulf. | Asia |
| Turkish Invasion of Cyprus | | 20th | 1974 | 1974 | The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus was a conflict in 1974. Greek and Turkish people had historically lived side-by-side in Cyprus, but the British colonisation from 1925-1960 contributed to inter-communal tensions. The invasion was triggered by a Greek coup where the Greeks wanted to unite Cyprus with mainland Greece and form the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus. Turkish forces responded by seizing and occupying the north of the island. The fighting resulted in a divided Cyprus of Turkish Northern Cyprus and the Greek Cypriot Republic of Cyprus. | Asia |
| Oslo Accords | | 20th | 1993 | 1995 | The Oslo Accords are a pair of agreements, signed as the Declaration of Principles on Palestinian Self-Rule, in Washington D.C, United States, in 1993 and Taba, Egypt, in 1995. The agreements created the Palestine National Authority and were part of a peace process of negotiations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation, where both sides formally recognised each other. Both accords aimed to be an interim agreement, intending further negotiations and a settlement within five years of establishing a Palestinian Authority of the West Bank and Gaza. | Asia |
| Dersim Rebellion | Dersim Massacre | 20th | 1937 | 1938 | The Dersim Rebellion, also known as the Dersim Massacre, was an uprising in the Dersim region, present-day Tunceli, Turkey. The Zaza-Kurdish people who lived there rebelled following the Tunceli Law and the Turkish government’s aims to strengthen their authority in the area and promote Turkification as part of the Republic of Turkey’s policies. The Turkish Armed Forces responded with a military campaign between 1937 and 2 January to December 1938 that quelled the rebellion after multiple operations and the hanging of the rebel leaders. | Asia |
| Omani Civil War | Dhofar Rebellion | 20th | 1962 | 1976 | The Omani Civil War, also known as the Dhofar Rebellion, happened in Dhofar, which was culturally and linguistically distinct from Oman but was also a dependency of it. War began when the Marxist group, Dhofar Liberation Front, wanted to create a Dhofar state independent from Oman. Oman, with Britain, had aims to safeguard Oman from communism. The British played a hand in the war with a military modernisation campaign against the rebels. In addition, the Shah of Iran also intervened, resulting in a victory for the Oman government and the rebel's defeat. | Asia |
| Gulf War | | 20th | 2 August 1990 | 28 February 1991 | The Gulf War was an international response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 following Iraq’s accusation that Kuwait had stolen oil. Iraq owed a debt to Kuwait, which their invasion aimed to cancel by acquiring the country’s oil reserves and expanding Iraqi control of the region. A United States-led coalition of 35 countries intervened to protect Kuwait’s oil-rich neighbour Saudi Arabia from invasion. The war happened in two stages, Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, which drove Iraqi troops out of Kuwait and restored Kuwait’s independence. | Asia |
| 1963 Syrian Coup D’état | 8 March Revolution | 20th | 8 March 1963 | 8 March 1963 | The 1963 Syrian Coup D’état, also known as 8 March Revolution, refers to the overthrowing of Syria’s democratic government by the military committee of the Syrian Regional Branch of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party. Despite the support from the traditional landholding Sunni elite for the government, discontent among the capitalist middle class, after the domination of the elite and marginalisation of lower classes and minorities in Syria, led to an increase in the appeal of the Ba’ath Party. The coup was successful, and the Ba’athists toppled the government and seized power in Syria. | Asia |
| Sayfo | Assyrian Genocide | 20th | 1915 | Date and year unknown | The Sayfo, also known as the Assyrian Genocide, took place in 1915 and refers to the Ottoman forces and Kurdish tribe's mass slaughter and deportation of the Assyrian Christian population who lived in the Ottoman Empire. The Assyrians lived in remote areas and wanted to maintain their autonomy but rising nationalism and anti-Christian sentiment increased conflict in these regions. The negative effect of European attempts to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman's want to resettle displaced Muslims also contributed to the genocide. | Asia |
| Six-Day War | 1967 Arab-Israeli War | 20th | 05 June 1967 | 10 June 1967 | The Six-Day War, or the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, was a conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab States. Warfare broke out due to heightened tensions between Israel and the neighbouring Arab States caused by the 1949 Armistice Agreements of the First Arab-Israeli War, Egypt’s closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli vessels, an increase of guerrilla warfare, and faulty Soviet intelligence that Israel was planning a campaign against Syria. The war resulted in the Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. | Asia |
| Lord Edward's Crusade | Ninth Crusade | 13th | 1271 | 1272 | The Lord Edward’s Crusade, also known as the Ninth Crusade, was a religious, military campaign between Christian crusaders who aimed to regain Christian rule of the Holy Land, the present-day State of Israel, from the Muslim Mamluk Empire. The expedition primarily consisted of English barons and knights led by the future King Edward I of England, who allied with the Mongol army against the Mamluks led by Baibars, the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Both sides had limited victories in the crusade, which ended in a truce. | Asia |
| Rojava Conflict | Rojava Revolution | 21st | 19 July 2012 | Ongoing | The Rojava Conflict, or the Rojava Revolution, was a political and military-led conflict in northern Syria, also known as Western Kurdistan or Rojava. Kurds and other ethnic minorities in Syria, repressed by the Syrian government, formed anti-government groups that aimed to establish an autonomous region. After successful advances from the People’s Protection Units on Syrian forces, the Kurdish Democratic Union Party and Kurdish National Council took control over areas in northern Syria. The conflict resulted in the establishment of a self-governed autonomous Rojava. | Asia |
| Gaza War | Gaza Massacre | 21st | 27 December 2008 | 18 January 2009 | The Gaza War, or the Gaza Massacre, was an armed conflict between Israel and Palestinian groups. Israel wanted to stop weapon smuggling into the Gaza Strip and cease Hamas, a Palestinian organisation, from firing rockets into Israel. Hamas stated their rocket fire was in retaliation to an Israeli raid, which Israel said was a pre-emptive response to a tunnel they believed would be used to abduct Israeli soldiers. The war began with an Israeli military offensive by air and ground, while Hamas used rockets and mortar attacks. The conflict ended with a ceasefire. | Asia |
| 2014 Gaza War | Operation Protective Edge | 21st | 8 July 2014 | 26 August 2014 | The 2014 Gaza War, or Operation Protective Edge, was an Israeli military operation in the Hamas-governed Gaza Strip. Hamas and Israel were in tension due to the kidnapping and murder of Israeli teenagers by Hamas-affiliated militants. Hamas’s aim in the war was to end Israel’s blockade of the Gaza Strip and military offensive, release Palestinian prisoners and guarantee a ceasefire. Israel aimed to prevent rockets from being fired into Israel from the Gaza Strip and the threat of militant attacks from tunnelling at the border. After 50 days of warfare, the conflict concluded with a truce. | Asia |
| Operation Pillar of Defence | | 21st | 14 November 2012 | 21 November 2012 | The Operation Pillar of Defence took place over a week in November 2012 when the violent conflict was escalating between Hamas and Israel, and an Israeli airstrike killed the chief of the Hamas military wing. Israel aimed to end the rocket attacks on Israel from the Gaza Strip and to disrupt militant organisations. Hamas’ reasoning for the rocket attacks was the Gaza Strip blockade and Israel’s occupation of the West Bank. After days of air strikes and rocket attacks, Hamas and Israel agreed on a ceasefire. Both claimed victory. | Asia |
| Adwan Rebellion | Balqa Revolt | 20th | 1923 | Date and year unknown | The Adwan Rebellion, also known as The Balqa Revolt, was an uprising against the British Mandate and the newly established Transjordanian government of present-day Jordan. The rebellion took place between the Adwan Tribe and the Bani Sakher Tribes in the Balqa region, where unequal taxation and the Adwan’s demand for a more representative assembly and democratic rule were causes for the uprising. The British RAF crushed the revolt, resulting in the Adwan leader and his sons fleeing to Syria. | Asia |
| Italo-Turkish War | Trablusgarp Savaşı | 20th | 29 September 1911 | 18 October 1912 | The Italo-Turkish War, or the Trablusgarp Savaşı in Turkish, refers to Italy’s invasion of Ottoman-ruled Tripolitania Vilayet, present-day Libya. Italy’s reasons for the attack were rooted in their desire to establish a colony in North Africa and their historical claims to Libya. War was declared following Italy’s rejection of the contested land to be under their control and be a formal Ottoman suzerainty. The war, between 29 September 1911 to 18 October 1912, resulted in Italy’s capture of present-day Libya. | Asia |
| Kura Rebellion | | 20th | 1921 | 1921 | The Kura Rebellion of April 1921 refers to an uprising led by Sheikh Kulaib al-Shraideh, the self-established ruler of Kura, Transjordan, present-day Jordan, against the Amman central government. Shraideh demanded that Kura be made separate from Irbid, but the Amman central government refused. Following the murder of a tax collector, armed forces were sent to Kura, but rebels ambushed them. Emir Abdullah, the ruler of Transjordan, then visited Sheikh Kulaib al-Shraideh, who surrendered, and the rebels were given amnesty. | Asia |
| Anglo-Nepalese War | Gorkha War | 19th | 1814 | 1816 | The Anglo-Nepalese War, also called the Gorkha War, was a conflict between the British East India Company and the Gorkha army of present-day Nepal. The British wanted to invade Nepal to expand their control in the Indian subcontinent for profit and trade. The Gorkhas also intended to expand into the southern region and raided Tarai at the border with India. Tensions between the two powers escalated, leading to conflict and warfare with armies sent in by the British. The war resulted in Britain’s victory over the Gorkhas and some of Nepal’s territory and ceded Tarai to the British. | Asia |
| Nepalese Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 1996 | 2006 | The Nepalese Civil War was an armed conflict in the Kingdom of Nepal, present-day Nepal, between the Nepalese royal government and the Communist Party of Nepal. The Communist Party, who were Maoist, were excluded from parliament and wanted to establish a republic by abolishing the monarchy. They launched a revolt to establish a single-party communist republic. Violence increased, and in 2005, to end the insurgency, the monarchy seized direct power. In 2006 the United Nations oversaw the peace process between the Communist Party and the Nepalese government to end the war. | Asia |
| Treaty of Sugauli | | 19th | 4 March 1816 | | The Treaty of Sagauli was drafted in Sugauli, India, in December 1815 and signed in March 1816. The treaty ended the Anglo-Nepalese War between the British East India Company and the Gorkhas of present-day Nepal. The treaty’s terms agreed that Nepal would renounce its claims to the Tarai region and cede a quarter of Nepal-controlled territory to the East India Company. The treaty also agreed for Nepal to remain independent whilst still having a British resident ambassador and for the British to recruit the Gorkhas for military services. | Asia |
| Third Nepal-Tibet War | | 19th | 1855 | 1856 | The Third Nepal-Tibet War between 1855 and 1856 refers to the Nepalese army’s invasion of Tibet. Tibet was under the administrative rule of China’s Qing Empire, which had made Nepal a tributary state. Nepal was humiliated by a previous treaty with the Qing dynasty. They cited abuse to Nepalese Newar traders in Lhasa as one of the reasons for their demands to Tibet’s government of territorial concessions and indemnity payment. Warfare ensued between Tibetan government forces and the Nepalese army. Nepal decreased its demands on Tibet, and the Treaty of Thapathali was signed to end the war. | Asia |
| Nepal–Sikh War | | 19th | 1809 | 1809 | The Nepal-Sikh War between March and August 1809 occurred in the Kangra Fort in Himachal Pradesh, India. The Gorkhas of present-day Nepal wanted to invade Kangra Fort as part of a policy to prevent more territory from coming into possession of foreign powers. As the Gorkha siege continued, Kangra’s Raja Sansar Chand sought help from the Sikh Empire’s Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who demanded dominance of Kangra Fort in return for his help. Sikh forces were dispatched, and a bloody battle ensued. The Gorkhas were forced to retreat. | Asia |
| Limbuwan–Gorkha War | | 18th | 1771 | 1774 | The Limbuwan-Gorkha War from 1771 to 1774 refers to a conflict between the Kingdom of Nepal, who invaded multiple principalities of Limbuwan, the present-day part of eastern Nepal. The war concluded with Limbuwan’s surrender on the condition of full autonomy in Limbuwan. A ceasefire treaty, called the Treaty of Salt and Water, agreed on the independence and self-government of Limbuwan rulers in their principalities. Following this, the Limbu-Gorkha Treaty was signed, in which some Limbuwan territories joined the Kingdom of Nepal. | Asia |
| 2004 Qamishli Riots | | 21st | 12 March 2004 | c. March/June 2004 | The 2004 Qamishli Riots in Qamishl, Syria, was a Kurdish uprising against the Syrian Ba-athist regime. The riots started after a football match when Kurdish fans of the local Kurdish home team were offended by Arab fans of the guest team, who, in turn, insulted Iraqi Kurdish leaders and held up photos of Saddam Hussein, who had targeted Iraqi Kurds. The Syrian Kurds attacked the Ba’ath party office, which triggered a response from the Syrian army. Syrian Kurds fled to Iraqi Kurdistan after the riots, and the President visited Qamishl to pardon Kurds involved in the violence. | Asia |
| Uqair Protocol of 1922 | Uqair Convention | 20th | 2 December 1922 | Date and year unknown | The Uqair Protocol of 1922, also known as the Uqair Convention, was an agreement imposed by the British High Commissioner to Iraq following raids into Kuwait and Iraq by Nejd Bedouins. The protocol took place in Uqair, Saudi Arabia. It defined the boundaries between Mandatory Iraq under British administration, the Sultanate of Nejd of present-day Saudi Arabia, and the Sheikhdom of Kuwait. Kuwait lost two-thirds of its territory in the agreement with its boundaries established by the Sultanate of Nejd and the British, which later led to increased anti-British sentiment in Kuwait. | Asia |
| Iraqi–Kurdish Conflict | | 20th, 21st | Date and year uknown | 2003 | The Iraqi-Kurdish Conflict was a series of conflicts in Iraq between the Iraqi Kurdish people who sought self-government and the central authority of Iraq. The conflict followed the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, but the start of the wars and rebellions are disputed. Some believe the start of the conflict began with the attempt by Mahmud Barzanji to establish an independent Kingdom of Kurdistan. Others recognise the conflict as only the post-1961 insurrection by the Barzanis. The conflict lasted until the United States invaded Iraq in 2003. | Asia |
| Iraqi Revolt | Great Iraqi Revolution | 20th | 1920 | 1920 | The Iraqi Revolt, also known as the Great Iraqi Revolution, was an Iraqi uprising against the British rule of Iraq. The conflict began with demonstrations and escalated to Iraqi fighters driving out British troops. Iraqis wanted independence and to establish an Arab government. The British said they were liberators from foreign oppression but increased their control of the country and made a new administration of mostly British officials. Though the revolt achieved some success, Britain suppressed the uprising and changed their strategy in Iraq with a new administration. | Asia |
| Ekdala War | Bengal Sultanate–Delhi Sultanate War | 14th | 1353 | 1359 | The Ekdala War, or the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War, took place in Bengal between the Bengal and Delhi sultanates. The Delhi sultanate had divided Bengal into three provinces to improve administration, and Ilyas Shah was appointed governor of one of the regions. Ilyas Shah defeated the other province’s rulers and declared himself Sultan of Bengal. Wanting Bengal’s independence to be recognised, he declared war on the Delhi Sultanate. The war resulted in a treaty acknowledging Bengal’s autonomy. Bengal was to make tributary payments to Delhi, while the exchange of gifts acted as signs of sovereignty from both sides. | Asia |
| Bengal–Jaunpur Confrontation | | 15th | 1415 | 1420 | The Bengal-Jaunpur Confrontation between 1415 and 1420 happened in present-day West Bengal. The Jaunpur Sultanate, a kingdom in northern India, opposed the overthrowing of the Bengal Sultanate’s founding dynasty and decided to attack the new Bengal Sultanate of Raja Ganesha. The Tamurid and Ming Empires intervened to mediate, and their involvement led to Jaunpur’s surrender. The confrontation resulted in Raja Ganesha’s son taking the Bengal throne and Jaunpur’s recognition of the new dynasty. | Asia |
| Tajikistani Civil War | | 20th | 1992 | 1997 | The Tajikstani Civil War was an uprising in 1992 by the United Tajik Opposition against the Tajikistan government led by the former general secretary of Tajikistan’s Communist party. Since leaving the Soviet Union in 1991, the country became divided between government supporters and opposition parties of liberal democrat reformers and Islamists who loosely formed the coalition of the United Tajik Opposition. Tensions escalated to violence until the Tajikistan president, the United Tajik Opposition leader and a United Nations representative signed a peace treaty in 1997. | Asia |
| First Anglo-Mysore War | | 18th | 1767 | 1769 | The First Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict that began in 1767 in India and lasted for two years. The war was between Mysore, a kingdom in South India, and the British East India Company. The British wanted an overland connection between its holdings in Madras and Bengal and aimed to access territories controlled by the French. However, Mysore was an ally of the French and so diverted Britain’s resources from controlling the region and instigated a war. Battles ensued until the Treaty of Madras in 1769. | Asia |
| Second Anglo-Mysore War | | 18th | 1780 | 1784 | The Second Anglo-Mysore War was part of a series of wars between the British East India Company and Mysore, who were allied with the French in India. Tensions escalated between Mysore and the East India Company in reflection of those between the British and French in the Anglo-French War. The East India Company wanted to drive the French out of India and seized the French port, Mahé, which was Mysore’s primary source of arms and munitions. Mysore responded with a war against the British. The Anglo-French War ended in 1783 and called for an end to the Second Anglo-Mysore War with a treaty in 1784. | Asia |
| Third Anglo-Mysore War | | 18th | 1790 | 1792 | The Third Anglo-Mysore War was between the Kingdom of Mysore and the allied British East India Company, the Kingdom of Travancore, the Maratha Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad. The British East India Company's failure to meet their promises, lack of support for Mysore in conflicts and other actions in favour of Mysore's enemies led to a dislike for the British. Mysore aimed to seize Travancore, present-day Tamil Nadu, before the British and their allies responded with war. The war lasted two years until a treaty, after which Mysore lost half of their territory. | Asia |
| Fourth Anglo-Mysore War | | 18th | 1798 | 1799 | The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War was the last conflict in a series of wars between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore, present-day Karnataka, India. The causes of the war extend from the power rivalry between France and Britain with Mysore, bitter from previous losses to the British, as a territory for tensions to play out. Napoleon Bonaparte intended to seize power from the British in India when he arrived in Ottoman Egypt in 1798, so Britain responded with a military advance on Mysore. The war resulted in Britain’s capture of Mysore and British-advised rulership. | Asia |
| Jaunpur-Bhojpur War | | 14th | 1389 | 1489 | The Jaunpur-Bhojpur War was a conflict in North India between the Jaunpur Sultanate of areas around present-day Jaunpur and the Ujjainiya leaders of the Bhojpur region in Bihar. The war lasted 100 years and began when the Ujjainiyas were angry at the Jaunpurs who had arrived in the holy city of Buxar in Bihar and interfered with Brahmins performing rituals. The Ujjainiyas drove the Jaunpurs from Buxar, which led to a war where the Ujjainiyas used guerrilla warfare resistance. The war ended once the Jaunpur Sultanate absorbed the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. | Asia |
| First Anglo-Maratha War | | 18th | 1775 | 1782 | The First Anglo-Maratha War from 1775 to 1782 between the British East India Company and the Pune Kingdom of the Maratha Empire began after a treaty between the British and the Marathas was violated by both parties. The British in Bombay gave refuge to Raghunathrao, the previous Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, while Nana Phadnavis, regent of the Maratha Empire, granted a port to the French. The British then sent troops to fight the Maratha Empire and capture territory. The war lasted until the Treaty of Salbai established peace between the British and Marathas for 20 years. | Asia |
| Second Anglo-Maratha War | | 19th | 1803 | 1805 | The Second Anglo-Maratha War happened between 1803 and 1805 due to tensions between the British and Maratha Empire after the Peshwa, one of the chiefs of the Maratha Empire, signed a treaty with the British East India Company that ceded territory to them. The other Maratha chiefs, engaged in internal disagreements and battles, contested the agreement. The British used military force to uphold the treaty and attacked Maratha’s forts. The war resulted in a British victory and three treaties signed by the Maratha chiefs that agreed on land ceded to the British. | Asia |
| Third Anglo-Maratha War | Pindari War | 19th | 1817 | 1819 | The Third Anglo-Maratha War, also known as The Pindari War, was the final war in a series of conflicts between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India. The war began in 1817 when the British invaded Maratha territory because of raids from a band of Pindaris who were mercenaries of the Maratha army. The Battle of Kirki, Battle of Koregaon, Battle of Sitabuldi and Battle of Mahidpur took place until the war resulted in a British victory in 1819. The Maratha Empire collapsed at the end of this war, and the East India Company took control of large areas of India. | Asia |
| Unification of Saudi Arabia | | 20th | 1901 | 1934 | The Unification of Saudi Arabia began in 1901 when Ibn Saud of the House of Saud sought to conquer much of the central Arabian Peninsula and create a unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, also called the Third Saudi State. The House of Saud, supported by the Ikhwan military force, recaptured Riyadh and seized Al-Qassim Region, Ha’il and Hejaz in sporadic battles and two-thirds of Kuwait in the Uqair Protocol. These territory gains resulted in Ibn Saud’s Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz, which consolidated with Al-Hasa and Qatif into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932. | Asia |
| Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon | | 19th | 30 December 1803 | 30 December 1803 | The Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon was signed on 30 December 1803 between Daulat Rao Sindhia of the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company at Anjangaon, Maharashtra, India. The treaty drew a close to the first phase of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, declaring Ganges-Yamuna Doab, Agra, Gohad and Gujarat of Sindhia, of the Maratha Empire, under British control. The treaty was revised in 1805, in which Gujarat and Gohad were restored to Sindhia, and again in 1817 to grant Sindhia more power in return for helping the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. | Asia |
| Treaty of Salbai | | 18th | 17 May 1782 | | The Treaty of Salbai was signed by the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company after the First Anglo-Maratha War. The treaty allowed the British to retain control of Salsette and Broach, present-day Bharuch, for the Marathas to defeat Mysore and regain territory. The treaty also established that there would be no French settlements in Maratha territories and that the British would acknowledge the new Maratha Peshwa and give a pension to the previous Peshwa. The treaty also agreed for territory occupied by Britain post-Treaty of Purandar to be returned to the Marathas. | Asia |
| Gwalior Campaign | | 19th | 1843 | 1843 | The Gwalior Campaign refers to the conflict between the British and the Marathas. Marathas in Gwalior had dethroned the British-supported Maharaja of Gwalior to regain independence after losing their empire in warfare with the British East India Company. The British did not want the Marathas to secure independence. After failed negotiations, British and Maratha forces fought in the Battle of Maharajpore and the Battle of Punniar. The conflict resulted in a British victory, appointing a British governor at Gwalior Fort. | Asia |
| Treaty of Surat | | 18th | 6 March 1775 | 1776 | The Treaty of Surat was between Raghunathrao and the Bombay office of the British East India Company. Raghunathrao was the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire after Narayanrao, but when Narayanrao’s son and heir was born, Raghunathrao was dethroned. Raghunathrao aimed to regain his position as Peshwa, and in this treaty, he agreed for Bassein and Salsette in present-day Maharashtra state of India to be given to the British in return for military troops to support his aims. | Asia |
| Treaty of Purandar | | 18th | 1776 | | The Treaty of Purandhar was signed in Calcutta, India, by Nana Phadnavis, a minister for the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company. This treaty annulled the Treaty of Surat, previously signed between Raghunathrao, who wanted to regain his position as Peshwa, and the British office of Bombay. The supreme council of the East India Company disagreed with the previous treaty and so signed the new treaty with the Maratha minister, Nana Phadnavis, which gave Raghunathrao a pension instead of supporting his desire to become Peshwa again and securing British control over Salsette. | Asia |
| Wars of Alexander the Great | | 4th BC | 334 BCE | 323 BCE | The Wars of Alexander the Great was a series of conflicts carried out by King Alexander III of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, mainly against the Achaemenid Empire, the First Persian Empire. Alexander II wanted to expand his kingdom and conquer the Achaemenid Empire because of their previous attacks on Greek territory. The wars began with several battles and subsequent conquests of Persian territory of present-day Asia Minor, including Syria, Egypt, present-day Turkey and Tajikistan, and later extended into the Punjab region. | Asia |
| Arab Cold War | | 20th | 1952 | 1979 | The Arab Cold War was a series of conflicts from 1952 to 1979 between Egypt’s new republic that supported socialism, Pan-Arab nationalism and Saudi Arabia’s traditional monarchy. The war refers to conflicts and uprisings after the political rivalry between Egypt’s Arab nationalism and Saudi Arabia’s conservative, traditional Islamism and the perceived complicity of Western powers intervening in the Arab World. Many believe the Iranian Revolution, in which Arab-Iranian tensions overshadowed those of the Arab Cold War, marks the end of the conflict. | Asia |
| 1989–1992 Afghan Civil War | | 20th | 15 February 1989 | 27 April 1992 | The 1989-1992 Afghan Civil War between the Republic of Afghanistan and Mujahideen groups began following a rise of nationalism and rebellions during the Soviet Union’s control of Afghanistan. Though the Soviets were pressured to withdraw from Afghanistan, a Soviet-supporting government remained in power, which the Mujahideen resistance saw as a puppet regime. The civil war occurred when Mujahideen groups formed a coalition to conquer Khost. The republic’s president had lost Soviet support, and the war ended with the agreement for a Mujahideen coalition government. | Asia |
| 1992–1996 Afghan Civil War | | 20th | 28 April 1992 | 27 September 1996 | The 1992–1996 Afghan Civil War took place after the outcome of the previous civil war and the agreement between Mujahideen groups and the Republic of Afghanistan to establish a Mujahideen coalition government. Economic collapse, political instability and increasing divisions between ethnic and religious groups contributed to the civil war’s outbreak in 1992. One Mujahideen group refused to join the coalition and attempted to seize Kabul. Conflict broke out between the Mujahideen groups, and the new Taliban militia captured four Afghan cities during the war. | Asia |
| 1996-2001 Afghan Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 27 September 1996 | 7 October 2001 | The 1996-2001 Afghan Civil War was fought between the United Front or Northern Alliance and the Taliban’s Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan after they seized Kabul. The Islamic State of Afghanistan replaced the collapsed Soviet-backed government. The Taliban’s regime rose to power and formed opposition groups of the United Front or Northern Alliance who believed in the democratic rule of Afghanistan. The Taliban aimed to enforce Islamic law and restore peace and security in Afghanistan. The war lasted until the United States and the United Kingdom invaded Afghanistan in 2001. | Asia |
| Arab Revolt | Great Arab Revolt | 20th | 1916 | 1918 | The Arab Revolt, also known as the Great Arab Revolt, was a military uprising of Arab forces in the Sharifian army against the Ottoman Empire between 1916 and 1918. The Arab forces aimed to create a unified and independent Arab state across Ottoman-occupied territory and agreed with the British government that they would back them and recognise the new state. After fighting the Ottomans, the Sharifian army founded the short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria before the British broke their promise and split the region into mandate territories with France. | Asia |
| Third Anglo-Afghan War | | 20th | 1919 | 1919 | The Third Anglo-Afghan War between the Emirate of Afghanistan and British India was triggered when Afghanistan declared independence and rejected British control over their foreign policy, which had been in place since 1876. British India was concerned about Afghanistan’s alliance with their rivals, the Russian Bolsheviks. Warfare occurred along the North-West frontier, present-day Pakistan, and Afghanistan, aimed to seize Peshawar and prior Afghan provinces. The war ended in a treaty reaffirming the Durand line and agreeing for Afghanistan to conduct its foreign policy. | Asia |
| Great Syrian Revolt | Revolt of 1925 | 20th | 1925 | 1927 | The Great Syrian Revolt, also known as the Revolt of 1925, was an uprising in the French mandates of the State of Syria and Greater Lebanon, present-day Republic of Syria and Lebanon, following World War I. The revolt was led by rebel groups that wanted to end the French mandate due to their repressive policies, prejudiced leadership, division of Syria into territories, and refusal to plan toward future Syrian independence. The resistance had early success but was finally crushed by French forces, and the rebel leaders were forced into exile. | Asia |
| 1953 Iranian Coup D'état | 28 Mordad Coup D'état | 20th | 1953 | 1953 | The 1953 Iranian Coup D’état, also known as 28 Mordad Coup D’état, refers to the United Kingdom, United States and the Iranian army’s alliance to overthrow Iran’s democratically elected prime minister. The United Kingdom instigated the coup to retain control over Iran’s oil after the Iranian government voted to nationalise their oil industry. The United States allied with the United Kingdom due to fears of communist influence in Iran and led an operation to provoke unrest in Iran. The coup was successful, and the dictatorial pro-Western shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, returned to power. | Asia |
| Goharshad Mosque Rebellion | 1935 Goharshad Mosque Massacre | 20th | 1935 | 1935 | The Goharshad Mosque Rebellion, also known as the 1935 Goharshad Mosque Massacre, was an uprising of the Shia Islam clergy and members of Shiite society made up of local villagers and merchants in Mashhad, Iran, against the Shah, Reza Shah Pahlavi. The Shah’s forcefully implemented Westernisation Campaign saw Islamic clothing banned. After a cleric from the Shiite community denounced the new rules, members of Shiite society took shelter in the Imam Rez shrine. Troops from Azerbaijan broke into the shrine and attacked, which resulted in numerous deaths and injuries to those taking refuge. | Asia |
| First Anglo-Afghan War | | 19th | 1838 | 1842 | The First Anglo-Afghan War between the British East India Company and the Emirate of Afghanistan happened when Britain invaded Afghanistan. Britain wanted control of Afghanistan out of fear of Russia invading India via Afghanistan, which increased after a Russian-backed Persian army’s siege on Herat, Afghanistan. The British invasion led to unrest, and the Afghans forced the British to withdraw. Britain invaded to avenge the death of their envoy and recover British prisoners in Kabul, but the troops withdrew afterwards. It was one of the first major conflicts of the Great Game. | Asia |
| Iranian Revolution | Islamic Revolution | 20th | 7 January 1978 | 11 February 1979 | The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, refers to the Pahlavi monarchy being overthrown in Iran by rebel and guerrilla groups. The Pahlavi dynasty’s reforms to modernise Iran angered the Shia Clergy and landlords as they lessened their control in Iran. These events led to civil unrest where censorship and martial law were enforced on anti-government protests and catalysed the revolution from 1978 to 1979. The revolt was a success that resulted in the Islamic Republic of Iran led by Ruhollah Khomeini. | Asia |
| Second Italo-Senussi War | Pacification of Libya | 20th | 1923 | 1932 | The Second Italo-Senussi War, also called the Pacification of Libya, took place in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, present-day Libya, between the Italian military and rebels associated with the Senussi Order, a Muslim political-religious clan. The Senussi had led an independent Libya since the previous resistance to Italy’s colonisation of the country. In 1923, Benito Mussolini, the Italian fascist leader, decided to reconquer Libya out of the importance of the new Italian Empire, and Italian troops fought the Senussi guerrilla resistance and seized control of Libya. | Asia |
| Modus Vivendi of Acroma | Treaty of Acroma | 20th | 1917 | Date and year unknown | The Treaty of Acroma, also known as the Modus Vivendi of Acroma, was signed in 1917 in Acroma, Libya, by Italy, Britain and Mohammed Idris, the leader of the Senussi Order. The treaty followed a ceasefire between Italy, which had been occupying Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, present-day Libya, and the Senussi Order, which had led rebel groups and allied with the Ottomans to revolt against Italy’s colonisation of Libya. The treaty recognised Idris’s authority over Libya and led to the establishment of the Tripolitanian Republic in 1918. | Asia |
| Treaty of Ankara | Frontier Treaty of 1926 | 20th | 5 June 1926 | | The Treaty of Ankara, also known as the Frontier Treaty of 1926, was a peace treaty signed in Ankara, Turkey, by Mandatory Iraq, the United Kingdom and Turkey. The treaty aimed to solve Turkey’s belief that due to historical, ethnic, and military reasons, British-occupied Mosul Vilayet, present-day northern Iraq, should be in Turkey. The treaty stated that Mosul would be retained by Iraq, with 10% of oil revenues to be paid to Turkey. It also agreed on a border between Turkey and Iraq to regulate relations between the countries which, if destabilised, would mean Turkey had the right to attack. | Asia |
| Ankara Agreement | Franklin-Bouillon Agreement | 20th | The Goguryeo-Tang+A400:F410 War, also called the Goguryeo-Tang Border War, was a conflict fought between the Goguryeo kingdom in Korea and the Tang dynasty of China. Sparked by the Tang dynasty’s expansionist policies and its desire to gain control over the Korean Peninsula, the two sides engaged in many battles and skirmishes along the border between Goguryeo and the Tang-controlled Silla Kingdom in southern Korea for several years. This war was a significant event in Korean and Chinese history, shaping the political and cultural landscape of the region for centuries to come. | | The Ankara Agreement, also known as the Franklin-Bouillon Agreement, provided the terms of peace between France and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, following the 1918-1921 Franco-Turkish War. The agreement stipulated that France was to leave the region of Cilicia, while also defining the boundary between Turkey and Syria, with certain territories ceded by France to Turkey. | Asia |
| Franco-Turkish War | Cilicia Campaign | 20th | 1918 | 1921 | The Franco-Turkish War, or Cilicia Campaign, happened between 1918 and 1921 between France and Turkey and was part of the Turkish War of Independence. France aimed to dismantle the Ottoman administration and occupy Ottoman ports and provinces with the French Armenian Legion following agreements made in the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the French-Armenian Agreement in 1916. The French troops met resistance from Turkish National Forces, which led to the Battle of Marash in 1920. The French retreated gradually, and the Treaty of Ankara and the Armistice of Mudanya ended the war. | Asia |
| Sheikh Said Rebellion | | 20th | 1925 | 1925 | The Sheikh Said Rebellion of 1925 was a Kurdish revolt led by Sheikh Said and fought by Azadi officers against the Turkish Republic in Turkish Kurdistan, Diyarbakir and Mardin, of present-day Turkey. Historians believe the causes for the uprising were the dissatisfaction with the Turkish Parliament’s abolition of the Islamic Caliphate, alongside the maltreatment and exploitation of Kurds. The new Turkish Republic did not want a Kurdish state established in northern Iraq as they thought it would spread into their territory. The rebellion was unsuccessful, and many Kurds fled to Syria. | Asia |
| 1958 Lebanon Crisis | Lebanese Civil War of 1958 | 20th | 15 July 1958 | 1958 | The 1958 Lebanon Crisis, or the Lebanese Civil War of 1958, occurred out of Christian-Muslim tensions, the discontent with Camille Chamoun’s presidency due to the rigging of the election, the United States' financial backing of Chamoun’s election, pro-Chamonun troops attacking the opposition and the belief that Chamoun’s actions went against the National Pact. Protests led to rioting and mob attacks, and United States forces intervened to support Chamoun and secure Beirut. Eventually, both sides agreed that Chamoun would finish his term in power with Fouad Chehab as his successor. | Asia |
| Wars of the Delian League | | 5th BC | 477 BCE | 449 BCE | The Wars of the Delian League from 477 to 449 BCE were between the Persian Achaemenid Empire and the Delian League of Athens, present-day Greece, and their allies. The wars continued during the Greco-Persian Wars and the historical tensions between the two powers who had invaded one another’s territories. Athens’ aims to invade Asia Minor were to strengthen the Greek position in the region. Warfare with the Persian army resulted in a Persian counter-attack forcing the Athenians’ withdrawal. Some historians suggest the Peace of Callias treaty ended the Greco-Persian Wars. | Asia |
| Ionian Revolt | | 5th BC | 499 BCE | 493 BCE | The Ionian Revolt refers to rebellions by the Ionians and Greeks against the Persian Empire. The revolt occurred in Greek states in Asia Minor, present-day Turkey and Cyprus, in the Persian Empire and ruled by Persian-nominated tyrants. Discontent about Persia’s support of tyrants and demands for tribute and service developed into the revolt, raised by a tyrant fearful of reprisals from the Persians. Ionian and Greek troops fought the Persians in multiple battles resulting in a Persian victory and a peace settlement re-establishing their control of Asia Minor. | Asia |
| Pacific War | Asia-Pacific War | 20th | 7 December 1941 | 2 September 1945 | The Pacific War, also known as the Asia-Pacific War, took place in the Asia-Pacific region during WWII and involved countries including Japan, China, the United States, Australia, and several European powers. It began with Japan’s invasion of China and saw some of the largest and deadliest battles in history. The total number of deaths was estimated between 30 to 50 million, with civilian deaths outnumbering military deaths. Widespread atrocities were committed by the Japanese with the war ending with Japan’s surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States. | Asia, Oceania |
| Tanggu Truce | Tangku Truce | 20th | 31 May 1933 | | The Tanggu Truce, also known as the Tangku Truce, was a significant event in the lead-up to the Pacific War. It was signed by the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan in Tanggu District, Tianjin, formally ending the Japanese invasion of Manchuria through the mediation of Great Britain and the United States. The invasion began in 1931 and led to the establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo. Notwithstanding, the truce was short-lived, as Japan continued to expand its control over China, and in 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out. | Asia |
| Treaty of Nanking | Nanjing Treaty | 19th | 29 August 1842 | | The Treaty of Nanking, also called the Nanjing Treaty or Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Commerce, was an agreement signed between China and the United Kingdom. It ended the First Opium War, which had been fought between China and the British Empire over trade and diplomacy issues. Under the terms of the Treaty, China ceded the island of Hong Kong to the British and was forced to open up several treaty ports to foreign trade and residence, including Shanghai. It marked the beginning of the unequal treaties imposed on China by Western powers and Japan during the 19th and early 20th centuries. | Asia |
| Treaty of Shaoxing | Treaty of Zhaoqing | 12th | 1141 / 1142 | | The Treaty of Shaoxing, also called the Treaty of Zhaoqing or the Treaty of Shaoguan, was a peace agreement signed between the Southern Song Dynasty of China and the Jurchen-led Jin Dynasty. It ended the Jin-Song Wars, which had been fought between the two dynasties over control of northern China. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Southern Song Dynasty was forced to cede significant territories to the Jin Dynasty, which weakened the dynasty’s military power. The treaty also paved the way for the eventual conquest of the Southern Song Dynasty by the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. | Asia |
| Treaty of Chanyuan | | 11th | 1005 | | The Chanyuan Treaty was signed between the Liao Dynasty and the Song Dynasty of China. Under the terms of the Treaty, the Liao Dynasty withdrew its forces from Kaifeng, the Song Dynasty’s capital. The Song Dynasty paid a large tribute to the Liao Dynasty in acknowledging the Liao emperor as its suzerain, and the treaty established a system of regular tribute payments from the Song Dynasty to the Liao Dynasty. | Asia |
| Treaty of Changqing | | 9th | 822 | | The Treaty of Changqing was a peace treaty signed between the Tibetan emperor of the Yarlung dynasty and the Chinese Emperor of the Tang dynasty following a series of military conflicts between the two empires. In exchange for peace, the Tibetans agreed to stop their military campaigns against the Tang dynasty and the Tang agreed to pay tribute to the Tibetans. The Treaty established a period of stability between Tibet and Tang China that lasted for more than 50 years, until hostilities resumed in the mid-9th century. | Asia |
| Goguryeo-Tang War | Goguryeo-Tang Border War | 7th | 645 | 668 | The Goguryeo-Tang War, also called the Goguryeo-Tang Border War, was a conflict fought between the Goguryeo kingdom in Korea and the Tang dynasty of China. Sparked by the Tang dynasty’s expansionist policies and its desire to gain control over the Korean Peninsula, the two sides engaged in many battles and skirmishes along the border between Goguryeo and the Tang-controlled Silla Kingdom in southern Korea for several years. This war was a significant event in Korean and Chinese history, shaping the political and cultural landscape of the region for centuries to come. | Asia |
| Sino-Burmese War | Qing Invasions of Burma | 18th | December 1765 | 22 December 1769/1790 | The Sino-Burmese War, also called the Qing Invasions of Burma, was a series of military campaigns fought between the Qing Dynasty of China and the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (present-day Myanmar). The war was sparked by the expansionist policies of the Konbaung Dynasty, which had conquered the Shan states in northern Burma and threatened Chinese interests in the region. In response, the Qing Dynasty launched a series of invasions of Burma to protect its border and assert dominance over the region, with both sides suffering significant casualties. | Asia |
| Sino-Nepalese War | Sino-Gorkha War | 18th | 1788 | 1789 | The Sino-Nepalese War, also known as the Sino-Gorkha War, was fought between the Kingdom of Nepal and the Qing dynasty of China. Nepal launched an invasion of Tibet, which was under Qing rule, and China sent an army to reassert control over Tibet. The war took place in the difficult terrain of the Himalayan foothills. Despite being outnumbered, the Nepalese forces were able to repel the Chinese army. The war ended with the Treaty of Betrawati in 1792, which recognized Nepal’s sovereignty and established a border between Nepal and Tibet. | Asia |
| Treaty of Betrawati | Nepal-China Treaty of 1792 | 18th | 6 September 1792 | | The Treaty of Betrawati, also known as the Nepal-China Treaty of 1792, was signed between the Kingdom of Nepal and the Qing Dynasty of China in the village of Betrawati (present-day Nuwakot district of Nepal). It established diplomatic relations between Nepal and China, recognising Nepal’s sovereignty and delineating the border between Nepal and Tibet. The treaty guaranteed trade between the two nations and the establishment of consulates in each other’s territories. It also marked Nepal’s transition from a landlocked Himalayan kingdom into a regional power. | Asia |
| Sino-Indian War | Sino-Indian Border Conflict | 20th | 20 October 1962 | 21 November 1962 | The Sino-Indian War, also called the Sino-Indian Border Conflict, was a brief war between China and India after the 1959 Tibetan uprising when India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. The war was fought over a disputed Himalayan border region, with both sides claiming sovereignty over the area. The war resulted in a decisive Chinese victory, with China gaining control of Aksai Chin, a strategic region in the western Himalayas. The Dalai Lama still resides in exile in India, causing continuing tensions in China and India’s relationship. Casualties of this war were soldiers from both forces. | Asia |
| Ming-Mong Mao War | | 14th | January 1386 | 1388 | The Ming-Mong Mao War was a series of conflicts between the Ming Dynasty of China and the Mong Mao state in what is now known as the Yunnan province of China. The Mong Mao was an important trading hub, connecting China with Southeast Asia and India and known for its rich natural resources of gold, silver, and other minerals. The Ming Dynasty sought to expand its control over these resources and trade routes. The Ming Dynasty was victorious and Mong Mao state was dissolved and became part of the Ming Empire. Its people were assimilated into Chinese culture and society. | Asia |
| First Opium War | Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842 | 19th | 4 September 1839 | 29 August 1842 | The First Opium War, also known as the Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842, was fought between the British East India Company and China. As the leading seller of opium to China, Britain was keen to maintain its monopoly on the drug grown in its colonies in India. In 1976, China made the import and cultivation of opium illegal to crack down on the opium trade, which was being conducted illegally by British merchants. The British responded by initiating war. The Qing government was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, which ceded Hong Kong to the British Empire. | Asia |
| Second Opium War | Second Anglo-Sino War | 19th | 8 October 1856 | 24 October 1860 | The Second Opium War, also known as the Second Anglo-Sino War, was a colonial war between the British Empire and the French Empire against the Qing Dynasty of China. The war was fought over issues relating to trade and diplomatic relations between China and the Western powers, including the treatment of foreign envoys in China. It ended with the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858 and the Convention of Beijing in 1860, which imposed several unequal treaties on China, such as the opening of additional treaty ports to foreign trade and the legalisation of the opium trade. | Asia |
| Tientsin Accord | Li-Fournier Convention | 19th | 11 May 1884 | | The Tientsin Accord, also called the Li-Fournier Convention, was an agreement intended to settle an undeclared war between France and China over the sovereignty of Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). The accord recognised France’s right to extend its influence over parts of northern Vietnam, which was then part of the Chinese Empire. In return, France recognised China’s sovereignty over Annam and Tonkin, which it had previously attempted to conquer. The accord established rules for further foreign encroachment in China and was seen as a major defeat for Chinese sovereignty. | Asia |
| 1911 Revolution | Xinhai Revolution | 20th | 10 October 1911 | 12 February 1912 | The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution, was a nationwide uprising that began in the city of Wuchang (now the Wuchang District of Wuhan) by a group of revolutionaries who sought to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a democratic government. The revolution spread throughout the country, with rebellions breaking out in many major cities. The revolutionaries were united in their desire to end the Qing Dynasty’s rule and create a new, modern China. This uprising marked the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China and established the Republic of China. | Asia |
| National Protection War | Anti-Monarchy War | 20th | 25 December 1915 | 14 July 1916 | The National Protection War, also known as the Anti-Monarchy War, was a civil war that took place in China three years after the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, had been overthrown and the Republic of China was established in its place. Yuan Shikai, the President of the Republic of China, declared himself emperor in 1915 and was met with widespread opposition, which turned into open rebellion and war. Yuan’s attempt to establish an imperial dynasty came to an end with his death in 1916. The war is considered a pivotal moment in the early years of the Republic of China. | Asia |
| Sino-Tibetan War | Second Sino-Tibetan War | 20th | 1930 | 1932 | The Sino-Tibetan War, also called the Second Sino-Tibetan War, was a war between the Republic of China and Tibet that began when Tibetan forces attacked Chinese positions in the Chumbi Valley, a region located on the border between Tibet and the Chinese province of Sichuan. The Chinese responded with a full-scale invasion of Tibet, capturing the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and causing the Dalai Lama to seek exile in India. The Sino-Tibetan War was a significant event in the history of Tibet and China, marking the beginning of China’s occupation of Tibet and the end of Tibet’s independence. | Asia |
| Seventeen Point Agreement | | 20th | 23 May 1951 | | The Seventeen Point Agreement was signed between the Chinese Central People’s Government and the government of Tibet. It provided for the incorporation of Tibet into the People’s Republic of China while allowing the traditional Tibetan social system, including the role of the Dalai Lama as a spiritual and temporal leader, to continue. However, the agreement was not recognised by the government of the Republic of China in Taiwan nor by the exiled Tibetan government led by the Dalai Lama. | Asia |
| Mongol Invasions | Mongol Wars | 13th, 14th | 1206 | 1368 | The Mongol Invasions progressed through the 13th century as a series of campaigns and invasions which led to the vast Mongol Empire covering much of Asia and Europe by the year 1300. Key figures include Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan, who completed the conquest of China and established the Yuan Dynasty, and Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan’s successor as Great Khan. The Mongol Invasions have been recorded as an orgy of violence and destruction and as likely to have spread the bubonic plague across Eurasia. | Asia |
| Chinese Civil War | Chinese Revolution | 20th | 1 August 1927 | 7 December 1949 | The Chinese Civil War, also known as the Chinese Revolution, was a long and intermittent conflict in China between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT) that lasted from 1927 to 1949. It was a struggle for power and control of China, with the CCP ultimately emerging victorious and establishing the People’s Republic of China in 1949. While no official death toll was recorded, estimates suggest that millions of civilians lost their lives due to direct combat, famine, disease, and other factors related to the war. | Asia |
| First Taiwan Strait Crisis | Formosa Crisis | 20th | 3 September 1954 | 1 May 1955 | The First Taiwan Strait Crisis, also known as the Formosa Crisis, was a conflict between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). It was sparked by the PRC’s decision to launch a series of attacks on the ROC-held islands of Quemoy and Matsu, located just off the coast of mainland China. The crisis raised fears of a wider conflict between the United States, which supported the ROC, and the Soviet Union, which supported the PRC. It eventually ended with a ceasefire in 1955, but tensions between the PRC and ROC continued, leading to the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1958. | Asia |
| Second Taiwan Strait Crisis | 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis | 20th | 23 August 1958 | 22 September 1958 | The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was a continuation of the conflict between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC),commonly known as Taiwan. It was the first time that the United States and the PRC were involved in a direct military confrontation. The crisis began when the PRC began shelling the islands held by the ROC to test the extent of the United States’ defence, as it was supporting the ROC through military aid. The crisis initially escalated but ended when the PRC announced a ceasefire and the ROC agreed to stop its air raids against the PRC. | Asia |
| Manchu Restoration | Dingsi Restoration | 20th | 1 July 1917 | 12 July 1917 | The Manchu Restoration, also known as the Dingsi Restoration, was an attempt to restore imperial rule in China by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was led by Qing loyalist General Zhang Xun whose army seized Beijing and briefly reinstalled the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Puyi, to the throne. Zhang Xun’s forces were defeated by the republican army, and he was forced to flee. The Manchu Restoration failed and marked the end of the Qing Dynasty’s attempts to regain power. It also highlighted the continued instability in China, with various factions vying for power and control. | Asia |
| Ming-Hồ War | Ming-Đại Ngu War | 15th | 11 May 1406 | 17 June 1407 | The Ming-Hồ War, also known in Vietnam as the Ming-Đại Ngu War, was fought between the kingdom of Đại Ngu (present-day northern Vietnam) under the Hồ Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty of China. The conflict began with Ming intervention in support of a rival faction to the Hồ Dynasty which ruled Đại Ngu, but ended with the incorporation of Đại Ngu into the Ming Dynasty as the province of Jiaozhi. The invasion is recognised by historians as a significant war of the late medieval period, where both sides used the most advanced weapons in the world at the time. | Asia |
| Ming-Kotte War | | 15th | 1410 / 1411 | Unknown | The Ming-Kotte War was a military conflict that took place in the early 15th century between the Ming Dynasty of China and the Sinhalese Kingdom of Kotte in Sri Lanka. It occurred when the Chinese treasure fleet returned to Sri Lanka in 1410 or 1411, and resulted in the overthrow of King Alakeshvara of the Alagakkonara feudatory, who was replaced by Parakramabahu VI of the previous royal family. The conflict ended with a Chinese victory, with China establishing a diplomatic and trade relationship with the new king. | Asia |
| Sino-Russian Border Conflicts | | 17th | 1652 | 1689 | The Sino-Russian border conflicts of 1652-1689 were a series of intermittent battles and wars between the Qing Dynasty of China and the Russian Empire. The conflict was mainly fought over the control of Siberia and the Amur River region by the Tsardom of Russia and involved both military clashes and diplomatic negotiations. The conflict resulted in the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689),a border treaty between the two powers that established the borders of Siberia and China. | Asia |
| Dzungar-Qing Wars | Zunghar-Qing Wars | 17th | 1687 | 1758 | The Dzungar-Qing Wars were a series of conflicts fought between the Dzungar Khanate, a Mongol-Oirat empire based in present-day Kazakhstan, and the Qing Dynasty of China. The wars were sparked by a territorial dispute over control of Mongolia and Tibet, which both sides claimed as their own. The Qing defeated the Dzungars and consolidated their control over Mongolia and Tibet, resulting in the near annihilation of the Dzungar Khanate, with significant loss of life and the forced migration of many Dzungars from their homeland. | Asia |
| Treaty of Nerchinsk | Treaty of Nerchinsk-Aigun | 17th | 27 August 1689 | | The Treaty of Nerchinsk, also known as the Treaty of Nerchinsk-Aigun, was a peace treaty signed by the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing Dynasty of China and negotiated in Nerchinsk, a border town between the two countries. It resolved the border disputes that had led to a series of conflicts between the two empires in the region of Siberia and Mongolia. The treaty defined the borders between the two empires and established a trade relationship between Russia and China. It was the first treaty between Russia and China and marked a significant moment in the history of Sino-Russian relations. | Asia |
| Sino-Sikh War | Dogra-Tibetan War | 19th | May 1841 | August 1842 | The Sino-Sikh War, also called the Dogra-Tibetan War, was fought between the Sikh Empire and the Chinese Qing Dynasty over the control of Ladakh, a region in the western Himalayas. The Sikh Empire had previously annexed Ladakh, but the Chinese claimed it as a tributary state. The Chinese forces were led by a Dogra commander who had defected from the Sikh Empire. The Chinese forces were victorious, and the Sikhs were forced to cede Ladakh to China. The war marked the first time the Chinese had established direct control over Ladakh, leading to tensions with the British East India Company. | Asia |
| Taiping Rebellion | Taiping Civil War | 19th | December 1850 | August 1864 | The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or Taiping Revolution, was a massive civil war in China between the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty and the Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The latter wanted to establish a new dynasty, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and replace the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. The rebellion was characterised by its religious fervour and radical political and social ideology. It was marked by brutal fighting, including massacres of civilians, and the loss of an estimated 20-30 million lives, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. | Asia |
| First Manchu Invasion of Korea | Later Jin Invasion of Joseon | 17th | January 1627 | 3 March 1627 | The First Manchu Invasion of Korea, also known as the Later Jin Invasion of Joseon, was a conflict launched by the Later Jin Dynasty of Manchu-led China against the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The main objective of the invasion was to acquire Joseon’s abundant natural resources and establish a tributary relationship with the Korean state. The invasion was successful, and the Manchu forces briefly occupied the Korean capital, Hanyang (modern-day Seoul). The war ended with the Treaty of Ningbo, which forced Joseon to recognise the Later Jin as its suzerain state and pay tribute to China. | Asia |
| Qing Invasion of Joseon | Qing Conquest of Joseon | 17th | 9 December 1636 | 30 January 1637 | The Qing Invasion of Joseon, also known as the Qing Conquest of Joseon, was fought between the Qing Dynasty of China against the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. The invasion was aimed at establishing the Qing Dynasty as the dominant power in East Asia and formalising Joseon’s relationship as a tributary state to the Qing Dynasty, thus severing its relationship with the previous Ming Dynasty. The invasion was successful, and Joseon was forced to acknowledge Qing suzerainty and pay tribute to China. This marked the beginning of Joseon’s long-term tributary relationship with Qing China. | Asia |
| Gwangju Uprising | May 18 | 20th | 18 May 1980 | 27 May 1980 | The Gwangju Uprising, also known as May 18, was a popular uprising that took place in the city of Gwangju, South Korea, in response to the imposition of martial law and the arrest of the democratic leader Kim Dae-jung, who would later become the president of South Korea. Protestors fought against the authoritarian government that had taken power in a military coup. The military used deadly force resulting in numerous civilian deaths. The Gwangju Uprising is commemorated in South Korea each year on May 18 as a national holiday and has become a symbol of the struggle for democracy and human rights. | Asia |
| Punti-Hakka Clan Wars | Hakka-Punti Clan Wars | 19th | 1855 | 1868 | The Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, also known as the Hakka-Punti Clan Wars, were a series of large-scale conflicts in Guangdong province, China, during the 19th century. They were fought between the Punti and Hakka people, who were two major Han Chinese subgroups with different customs, languages, and geographical origins. The clashes were fuelled by long-standing social, economic, and political grievances, and competition for territory and power. It is estimated that over a million died, through brutal violence and mass killings, and thousands of villages were destroyed. | Asia |
| Nian Rebellion | Nian Uprising | 19th | c. 1853 | c. 1868 | The Nian Rebellion, also called the Nian Uprising, was a major conflict in northern China during the late Qing dynasty that took place at the same time as the Taiping Rebellion in southern and central China. Led by the Nian Army, a group of rebel farmers discontent with the government’s policies and the social and economic conditions of the time, it began in the eastern province of Shandong, quickly spreading to other northern provinces. Marked by several large-scale battles, the rebellion was finally defeated after a long and bloody campaign by the government forces. | Asia |
| Zhili-Anhui War | Anhui-Zhili War | 20th | 14 July 1920 | 23 July 1920 | The Zhili-Anhui War, also known as the Anhui-Zhili War, was fought in China between two rival factions of the Beiyang government, the Zhili clique and the Anhui clique. The former was based in the Zhili province (present-day Hebei) and led by military governor Feng Guozhang, while the latter was based in the Anhui province and led by general Duan Qirui. The war broke out over control of the central government and the capital city of Beijing. It lasted for several months and resulted in the defeat of the Anhui clique, strengthening the power of the Zhili clique in the Beiyang government. | Asia |
| First Sino-Japanese War | War of Jiawu | 19th | 1 August 1894 | 17 April 1895 | The First Sino-Japanese War, also known as the War of Jiawu in China, was a war between the Qing Dynasty of the Empire of China and the Empire of Japan, primarily for supremacy in Korea and the Korean Peninsula. Korea had been one of China’s most important states, but its strategic position and rich resources attracted Japan’s interest and desire for control. Japan forced Korea to open itself to Japanese trade in 1875, allowing Korea to declare itself independent from China. The Japanese victory saw China cede Taiwan, Penghu and Liaodong provinces in the Korean Peninsula to the Empire of Japan. | Asia |
| Second Sino-Japanese War | War of Resistance | 20th | 7 July 1937 | 2 September 1945 | The Second Sino-Japanese War, also known as the War of Resistance, was fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war is viewed as the start of WWII in Asia. China was supported by the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany at different periods during the war. It resulted in a victory for the Republic of China, although deaths and casualties were estimated at over 2.5 million. Japan lost territory to China, which became a permanent member of the UN Security Council. | Asia |
| Bombardment of Kagoshima | Anglo-Satsuma War | 19th | 15 August 1863 | 17 August 1863 | The Bombardment of Kagoshima, also known as the Anglo-Satsuma War, was a two-day military conflict fought between Imperial Britain and the Satsuma Domain of Kagoshima, in Japan. Britain wanted compensation from the Shimazu feudal lords who ruled Satsuma for the Namamugi Incident of 1862, when a British Royal Navy fleet was attacked by Satsuma coastal forces. The British response was to bombard the city, though they were unable to gain a decisive victory and retreated two days later. The Satsuma declared victory following the fulfilment of certain negotiations demanded by the British. | Asia |
| Boshin War | Japanese Revolution | 19th | 27 January 1868 | 27 June 1869 | The Boshin War, also known as the Japanese Revolution or the Japanese Civil War, was a civil war fought in Japan between the ruling Tokugawa shogunate forces and a new government seeking the restoration of the Japanese Imperial court and monarchy by seizing power. Feudal lords from both the Satsuma and Choshu Domains were actively involved in the formation of the new government called the Meiji. The Meiji government were victorious and restored imperial rule in Japan. The number of casualties was significantly lower than in other wars and has thus been idealised as a “bloodless revolution”. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasion of Taiwan (1874) | Mudan Incident | 19th | 6 May 1874 | 3 December 1874 | The Japanese invasion of Taiwan in 1874, also referred to as the Mudan Incident, was launched by the Japanese in retaliation for the murder of a number of Ryukyuan sailors by Paiwan, the indigenous people of Taiwan. The invasion was a success for the Empire of Japan and the first overseas deployment of imperial Japanese forces. It exposed the Qing Dynasty's fragile hold on Taiwan, triggering further Japanese attacks. British diplomacy eventually resolved Japan's conflict with China, although this was to Japan’s advantage as China was forced to pay indemnity to Japan. | Asia |
| Satsuma Rebellion | Southwestern War | 19th | 29 January 1877 | 24 September 1877 | The Satsuma Rebellion, also known as the Seinan War and the Southwestern War, was the final military revolt by disaffected samurai warriors against the new Meiji imperial government and its military reforms. The Meiji government’s reforms had left the samurai warriors - who were influential during the Restoration which saw the Imperial Court return to power - unemployed and their status obsolete. The rebellion pitted an experienced samurai army against the conscripted Imperial army, however, when the samurai leader Saigō Takamori was mortally wounded, the rebellion was crushed. | Asia |
| Boxer Rebellion | Boxer Uprising | 19th, 20th | 18 October 1899 | 7 September 1901 | The Boxer Rebellion, also called the Boxer Uprising, began as an anti-foreign, anti-colonial movement by a secret society that the British called the Boxers, due to their practice of Chinese boxing (a form of martial arts). Once Empress Dowager Cixi of Qing China gave her support, it turned into a war against European nations and the United States. The allied forces were able to quash the rebellion and took over Beijing and the Forgotten City. The Qing Dynasty was forced to pay a huge cash indemnity and sign the Boxer Protocol. | Asia |
| Russo-Japanese War | Japanese-Russian War | 20th | 8 February 1904 | 5 September 1905 | The Russo-Japanese War, also known as the Japanese-Russian War, was a war waged between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire over opposing imperial ambitions in Manchuria (present-day China) and the Korean Empire. The war was initiated by Japan to ensure the sovereignty of Japan in the Korean Peninsula and to stop the expansion of the Russian Empire southward. Although it resulted in a Japanese victory, both sides suffered heavy losses with Russian deaths estimated at up to 120,000 and Japanese deaths up to 87,000. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth. | Asia |
| Boxer Protocol | Xinchou Treaty | 20th | 7 September 1901 | | The Boxer Protocol, also known as the Xinchou Treaty, was signed by the Qing Dynasty of the Empire of China and the Eight-Nation Alliance, which included the British Empire and the United States. It was one of the unequal treaties, a name coined by the Chinese for treaties they were forced to sign in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Boxer Protocol was humiliating for China and exposed the weakness of the Qing government, who were forced to pay a huge indemnity. It has shaped contemporary Chinese diplomacy, strength, and sovereignty over the past century. | Asia |
| Treaty of Portsmouth | Japan-Russia Treaty of Peace | 20th | 5 September 1905 | | The Treaty of Portsmouth, also referred to as the Japan-Russia Treaty of Peace, is a treaty that officially ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. The signing of the treaty was mediated by the United States in the naval port of Portsmouth in New Hampshire, United States. The treaty confirmed Japan as a pre-eminent power in South Asia but also secured three decades of peace between Russia and Japan. The treaty consented to Japan the right of predominance and colonisation of the Korean Peninsula, resulting in the annexation of Korea to Japan in 1910. | Asia |
| Beipu Incident | Beipu Uprising | 20th | 14 November 1907 | Unknown | The Beipu Incident, also known as the Beipu Uprising, was an armed local uprising by a group of insurgents from multiple indigenous groups mainly of Hakka culture. The insurgents were resisting the oppressive Japanese colonial rule of the island of Taiwan. The uprising was the first of its kind in Taiwan under Japanese rule, but for nearly a century the uprising has been overlooked and distorted. The tragedy is still remembered in Beipu as families of the victims are still seeking justice. In 2007 the remains of victims were uncovered, and a formal memorial was held to commemorate the dead. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasion of Taiwan (1895) | Yiwei War | 19th | 29 May 1895 | 21 October 1895 | The Japanese Invasion of Taiwan 1895, also known as the Yiwei War, was an armed conflict between the Empire of Japan and the Republic of Formosa, a short-lived republic of Taiwan that existed before the Qing Dynasty of The Empire of China’s cession of Taiwan to Japan following the First Sino-Japanese War. The Formosan forces fought to resist Japanese occupation and suffered heavy losses with deaths estimated at around 14,000, including civilians. Japanese victory at the Battle of Baguashan crushed Republican forces, ending organised resistance to Japanese occupation. It led to five decades of Japanese rule in Taiwan. | Asia |
| Tapani Incident | Tapani Uprising | 20th | 1915 | 1915 | The Tapani Incident, also referred to as the Tapani Uprising, was one of the largest armed uprisings by indigenous Taiwanese Han and Taivoan against Japanese rule in Taiwan. The uprising is also known as the Xilai Temple Incident, after the Xilai Temple in Tainan where the revolt began. The uprising was quickly quashed after Japanese authorities escalated their devastating use of military force. Historical data and the remains of many victims were hidden until recently when the Tainan City Government officiated the first release of victims' names as part of a commemorative act. | Asia |
| Jinan Incident | 3 May Tragedy | 20th | 3 May 1928 | 11 May 1928 | The Jinan Incident, also called the 3 May Tragedy, was an armed conflict between the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and the Japanese Imperial Army. It began as a dispute between the military arm of the Chinese nationalist party, the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) and Japanese soldiers stationed in Jinan, the capital of Shandong Province in China. The Japanese Imperial forces were deployed to protect Japanese interests in the region, and their attack resulted in thousands of deaths on the NRA side, who fled the area and left Jinan under Japanese occupation until March 1929. | Asia |
| Musha Incident | Wushe Rebellion | 20th | 27 October 1930 | December 1930 | The Musha Incident, also known as the Wushe Rebellion, was the last main uprising by Taiwanese indigenous groups against the Japanese colonial forces in Taiwan, and viewed as a key moment in Taiwan’s colonial history. The indigenous Seediq group led the uprising and were brought to the verge of genocide by Japanese colonial authorities. Long-term oppression by Japanese colonisers led the Seediq to attack Japanese attendees at the Musha Elementary School, triggering a relentless counter-attack by Japanese forces who deployed heavy artillery and battalions of troops. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasion of Manchuria | Mukden Incident | 20th | 18 September 1931 | 28 February 1932 | The Japanese Invasion of Manchuria, also known as the Manchurian Incident, was fought between the Empire of Japan’s Kwantung Army and the Empire of China, after Japan invaded Manchuria in China to take control of the region’s rich natural resources for Japan’s growing industries. Japan used the Mukden Incident to seize control of the Mukden province, claiming Chinese interference in Japan controlled South Manchuria Railway Zone, establishing a puppet state of Manchukuo. Their occupation lasted until the end of the Second World War. | Asia |
| Manchuria Corrective Treaty | Peking Treaty of 1905 | 20th | 22 December 1905 | | The Manchuria Corrective Treaty, also referred to as the Peking Treaty of 1905, was a treaty between the Japanese Empire and the Qing Dynasty of China. It followed the Treaty of Portsmouth and reasserted the transferral of the Russian Empire's interests in Manchuria to Japan. Although the region was in part a Japanese Colony, the Qing did effectively still control the Manchurian province, making this treaty necessary to approve Japan’s additional demands already agreed upon in the Portsmouth Treaty. | Asia |
| January 28 Incident | Shanghai Incident | 20th | 28 January 1932 | 3 March 1932 | The January 28 Incident, also known as the Shanghai Incident, was an armed conflict between the Japanese Empire and the Republic of China. Following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, Japanese soldiers in the Shanghai International Settlement provoked anti-Japanese demonstrations. The Japanese government responded by sending militant ultranationalist Japanese Buddhist priests to the area to promote Japanese rule by engaging in public anti-Chinese protests. Intense violence increased anti-Japanese sentiment until a ceasefire was agreed, and Shanghai demilitarised. | Asia |
| Soviet-Japanese Border War | First Soviet-Japanese War | 20th | 1 March 1932 | 16 September 1939 | The Soviet-Japanese Border War, also known as the First Soviet-Japanese War or the Soviet-Japanese border conflicts, were a series of armed conflicts fought between the Soviet Union allied with Mongolia and Imperial Japan. Increased Japanese expansion in Northeast China between Japanese-occupied Manchuria, China and the Soviet Far East border (in the Soviet client state of Mongolia) led to growing tensions between the Soviets and Japanese. The victory over Japan for Soviet-Mongolian forces in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol reverted the borders to status quo ante bellum. | Asia |
| Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact | Japanese-Soviet Non-aggression Pact | 20th | 13 April 1941 | 5 April 1945 | The Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, also called the Japanese-Soviet Non-aggression Pact, was a treaty between the Soviet Union and the Empire of Japan following the end of the Soviet-Japanese Border War. Under the terms of the agreement, the two nations would be able to fight against each other's allies during WWII but not against each other. At the same time, they signed a declaration pledging to respect the territorial integrity of their client states of Mongolia and Manchukuo. However, towards the end of WWII Russia denounced the treaty and joined the Allied campaign against Japan. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasion of French Indochina | | 20th | 22 September 1940 | 26 September 1940 | The Japanese Invasion of French Indochina was a very brief undeclared military conflict between The Japanese Empire and Vichy France, the colonial authority of French Indochina. Japan wanted to stop China from using the Kunming-Haiphong railway, which ran through the regions of northern French Indochina, to import arms and fuel. The Japanese and Vichy French governments reached an agreement, but fighting had already broken out on the ground. The agreement resulted in a blockade on China and directly led to Japan’s occupation of Tonkin (present-day Vietnam). | Asia |
| Guangdong-Guangxi War | 1st and 2nd Yue-Gui Wars | 20th | 1920 | 1922 | The Guangdong-Guangxi War, also known as the 1st and 2nd Yue-Gui Wars, was a series of conflicts between the Kuomintang-led government of Guangdong and the Old Guangxi Clique in the Guangxi province of China. The war was fought between two factions of the Kuomintang, the Guomindang-led government of Guangdong and the Old Guangxi Clique, led by warlord Lu Rongting. The war marked the beginning of Chiang Kai-shek’s campaign to reunify China under Kuomintang rule and demonstrated the challenges faced by the Kuomintang in their efforts to establish a unified government in China. | Asia |
| First Zhili-Fengtian War | First Zhili-Feng War | 20th | 10 April 1922 | 18 June 1922 | The First Zhili-Fengtian War, also called the First Zhili-Feng War, was fought between two powerful cliques in China during the Warlord Era, the Zhili and the Fengtian, who were vying for control of Beijing. The war lasted for several months, with fierce fighting taking place in and around Beijing. The Zhili forces emerged victorious, and the Fengtian clique were forced to flee from Beijing. The defeat of the Fengtian clique weakened their position in the coalition government, and the Zhili were able to consolidate their power, cementing their dominance in northern China. | Asia |
| Second Zhili-Fengtian War | Second Chihli-Fengtien War | 20th | 15 September 1924 | | The Second Zhili-Fengtian War, also called the Second Chihli-Fengtien War, was fought between the Japanese-backed Fengtian clique and the Zhili clique, who after the First Zhili-Fengtian War controlled Beijing with Anglo-American support. A power struggle over control of the Beijing government escalated into a full-scale war that lasted several months. The Fengtian forces emerged victorious. The war demonstrated the growing influence of foreign powers in Chinese politics and the increasing use of military force to settle political disputes among warlords. | Asia |
| Treaty of Versailles | | 20th | 28 June 1919 | | The Treaty of Versailles, also called the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, was a peace treaty signed in Versailles, France, that officially ended WWI. The treaty was signed between Germany and the Allies, including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. China was involved in the Treaty of Versailles as one of the Allied powers as Chinese labourers were used by the Allies in various capacities during the war. The treaty was extremely harsh on Germany and has been seen as a significant factor in the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of WWII. | Europe |
| Kaidu-Kublai War | Chaghatai Khanate-Yuan Dynasty War | 13th, 14th | 1268 | 1301 | The Kaidu-Kublai War, also called the Chaghatai Khanate-Yuan Dynasty War, was fought over control of Central Asia between Kaidu, the Chaghatai Khanate ruler in Central Asia, and Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in China. Kaidu viewed Kublai’s attempts to centralise power in China as a threat to Mongol autonomy. Both sides experienced victories and defeats, but ultimately the war ended inconclusively. Kaidu retained his power in the Chaghatai Khanate, while Kublai shifted focus towards consolidating control over China. | Asia |
| Anti-Fengtian War | Guominjun-Fengtian War | 20th | November 1925 | April 1926 | The Anti-Fengtian War, also called the Guominjun-Fengtian War, was a major civil war within the Republic of China’s northern Beiyang government. The war was waged by the Guominjun, a faction led by Sun Yat-sen’s Kuomintang, against the Fengtian clique and their Zhili-clique allies, who sought to overthrow the Beiyang government and establish a new government based on the Three Principles of the People. The Guominjun were defeated, and yet the war paved the way for the Northern Expedition and the reunification of China under the Nationalist government. | Asia |
| Central Plains War | | 20th | May 1930 | November 1930 | The Central Plains War was a Chinese civil war between the Nationalist government in Nanjing, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and a coalition of regional military commanders and warlords who were his former allies. The war, which was fought in the central provinces of China, was sparked by a power struggle between Chiang and the military leaders who had helped him reunify China but felt his policies were too authoritarian. The war was marked by a high number of civilian casualties on both sides. Although Chiang emerged victorious, the war ultimately weakened his authority. | Asia |
| Northern Expedition | Northern March | 20th | 9 July 1926 | 29 December 1928 | The Northern Expedition, also known as the Northern March, was a major military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army of the Kuomintang against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in China. The goal was to reunify China under the control of the Kuomintang and establish a unified government. The conflict was supported by the Soviet Union which provided military advisers and supplies to the National Revolutionary Army. The Northern Expedition defeated the Beiyang government and established the Nationalist government in Nanjing. Nearly one million deaths are estimated. | Asia |
| Anglo-Thai Peace Treaty | | 20th | 1 January 1946 | | The Anglo-Thai Peace Treaty, also known as the Formal Agreement for the Termination of the State of War between Siam (present-day Thailand) and Great Britain and India, was a treaty that brought an end to the state of war that had existed between Thailand and the United Kingdom since the former’s declaration of war during WWII. Under the terms of the treaty, Siam renounced all claims to territories occupied during the war, including British Malaya, British Borneo, and French Indochina. Siam also agreed to the release of Allied prisoners of war and to pay reparations to the British government. | Asia |
| Peace Treaty between China and Tibet | Sino-Tibetan Peace Treaty of 783 | 8th | 783 | | The Peace Treaty between China and Tibet, also called the Sino-Tibetan Peace Treaty of 783, is a peace treaty between the Chinese Empire of the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire. The treaty granted the latter all the land in the Kokonor region, which corresponds to present-day Qinghai Lake. The treaty brought an end to the hostilities that had been ongoing between the two empires for over 200 years and set boundaries between the two which remained in place for several centuries. Under the agreement, Tibet concurred to pay an annual tribute to the Tang Empire in exchange for the recognition of Tibetan autonomy. | Asia |
| Treaty of Kyakhta | Treaty of Kiakhta | 18th | 25 June 1727 | | The Treaty of Kyakhta of 1727, also known as the Treaty of Kiakhta, was a treaty agreed between the Qing Empire of China and the Russian Empire to regulate trade relations between the two empires and to establish a border between Siberia and China. One of the key provisions of the treaty was the establishment of a fixed border between Siberia and China, which ran along the Argun River and Lake Baikal. The treaty allowed mutual access to markets in each other’s territories, and set out trade tariffs and taxes, while also establishing rules for the treatment of prisoners crossing the border. | Asia |
| China-Japan Peace and Friendship Treaty | | 20th | 12 August 1978 | | The Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People’s Republic of China, also known as the Japan-China Peace and Friendship Treaty, was signed between the governments of Japan and China. It served to normalise diplomatic, economic, and cultural relations between the two countries after years of tension and conflict following WWII. The treaty recognised the government of the People’s Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of China, affirming that Japan would not support any actions or activities to undermine Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan. | Asia |
| Russian Conquest of Siberia | Russian Colonisation of Siberia | 16th, 17th, 18th | 1580 | 1778 | The Russian Conquest of Siberia, also called the Russian Colonisation of Siberia, was a gradual annexation of Siberia by the Russian Empire which began in 1580 when a group of Cossacks invaded Siberia. The indigenous peoples of Siberia fiercely resisted, however, after establishing a foothold in Siberia, the Russians gradually expanded their control over the region through a combination of military force, diplomacy, and intermarriage. The conquest was a significant achievement for the Russian Empire, and Siberia’s vast natural resources continue to be a key factor in Russia’s economy. | Asia |
| Genkō War | Genkō Incident | 14th | 1331 | 1333 | The Genkō War, also known as the Genkō Incident, was a civil war in Japan between the Emperor Go-Daigo and the Kamakura shogunate, the feudal military government of Japan during the Kamakura period. Emperor Go-Daigo believed the Kamakura shogunate was corrupt and, favouring the interests of the samurai, he aimed to restore imperial power. The conflict had significant consequences for Japanese history, marking the end of the Kamakura period and the beginning of the Muromachi period. It also contributed to the growth of the samurai class, who played a crucial role in the fighting. | Asia |
| Mongol Invasion of Java | Mongol-Javanese War | 13th | 22 January 1293 | August 1293 | The Mongol Invasion of Java, also called the Mongol-Javanese War, was an attack on the island of Java by Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty in China. The invasion force consisted of a large fleet of ships and an army of over 20,000 men, but they were met with stiff resistance from the Javanese who made use of guerrilla tactics. After several months of fighting, the Mongols were forced to withdraw due to a combination of disease, dwindling supplies, and mounting losses. The Javanese victory was a significant setback for the Mongols, who had hoped to establish a foothold in Southeast Asia. | Asia |
| Qinghai-Tibet War | Tsinghai-Tibet War | 20th | 1932 | Unknown | The Qinghai-Tibet War, also called the Tsinghai-Tibet War, took place during the Chinese Civil War and the Sino-Tibetan War. With British support, it was led by the 13th Dalai Lama to expand the original conflict taking place between the Tibetan Army and the forces of the warlord Liu Wenhui. The Dalai Lama’s forces hoped to gain control over Qinghai and parts of Tibet, which were controlled by Liu’s troops. The Tibetans lost considerable land, leading the British to put pressure on Nanjing to declare a ceasefire. Truces were signed in 1933, ending the fighting. | Asia |
| Ōnin War | Ōnin-Bunmei War | 15th | 1467 | 1477 | The Ōnin War, also called the Ōnin-Bunmei War, was a civil war between two powerful samurai clans, the Hosokawa and the Yamana, who were vying for control over the shogunate. The conflict was triggered by the death of the shogun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa, who had failed to name a successor. The war was characterised by its brutality, widespread looting and pillaging, as well as its use of firearms, which were introduced to Japan by the Portuguese. The war devastated Japan, leading to a period of instability that lasted for more than a century and saw the displacement of many people. | Asia |
| Military Treaty of 26 July 1895 | | 19th | 26 July 1895 | | The Military Treaty of 26 July 1895, also known as the Treaty Concerning National Service of the Rehoboth Basters, was the second treaty signed by the Baster community in present-day Namibia and the German Empire. After the German annexation of South West Africa, this new treaty bound the Basters to do military service. Subsequently, the Basters fought alongside the German colonial forces in quelling the uprisings of the Herero, Nama, and Bondelswart people. They also participated in the German colonial war and genocide against the Herero and Nama people. | Africa |
| Treaty of Protection and Friendship | | 19th | 15 September 1855 | | The Treaty of Protection and Friendship, also known as the German-Baster Friendship and Protection Treaty, was signed on 15 September 1885 by the first leader of the Baster community, Hermanus van Wyk, and the German Empire during the annexation of South West Africa. The treaty was the first between any native peoples in South West Africa and the German authorities. Under the treaty, van Wyk’s independent executive powers were significantly curtailed but he succeeded in negotiating some autonomy for Rehoboth, the heart of the Baster community in present-day Namibia. | Africa |
| Han-Liu War | | 20th | September 1932 | November 1932 | The Han-Liu War was a major military conflict in late 1932 between the private armies of two warlords, Han Fuju and Liu Zhennian, over control of the Shandong province in China. Han controlled most of Shandong and had long desired to capture the eastern part of the province, which was held by Liu. Han emerged victorious and went on to rule Shandong unopposed for the following six years, while Liu was exiled to southern China. The war lasted for several months and resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life. | Asia |
| Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang | Soviet Reconquest of Xinjiang | 20th | 1934 | 1934 | The Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang, also called the Soviet Reconquest of Xinjiang, was a military campaign initiated by the Soviet Union against the provincial government of Xinjiang. Xinjiang was controlled by Sheng Shicai, a warlord who had taken power in a coup with Soviet support. Given its proximity to Central Asia, the Soviet Union viewed Xinjiang as a strategic region. Although Sheng Shicai had initially cooperated with the Soviets, he had become increasingly independent. The Soviet invasion was criticised by many as an act of aggression and strained relations between China and the Soviet Union. | Asia |
| War in Ningxia of 1934 | Sun Dianying Campaign | 20th | January 1934 | April 1934 | The War in Ningxia of 1934, also called the Sun Dianying Campaign, was a civil war for control over the Republic of China’s province of Ningxia, waged by the Chinese Muslim General Ma Hongbin and his ally, bandit leader Ma Bufang, against General Sun Dianying and his ally, the warlord Yan Xishan. The conflict began when Sun attempted to take control of Ningxia from Ma Hongbin, who had been appointed governor by the Nationalist government in Nanjing. Hongbin and Bufang were victorious, but the war resulted in the deaths of thousands of soldiers and civilians and the displacement of many more. | Asia |
| Soviet Invasion of Manchuria | Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation | 20th | 9 August 1945 | 20 August 1945 | The Soviet Invasion of Manchuria, also known as the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, was a military campaign launched by the Soviet Union against the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria, north-eastern China. It followed the Soviet Union’s declaration of war against the Empire of Japan and was part of the wider Soviet-Japanese War, which lasted until Japan formally surrendered. This was one of the largest and most complex military operations of WWII, involving more than 1.5 million Soviet troops, who faced a Japanese force of approximately 700,000. | Asia |
| 1959 Tibetan Uprising | Lhasa Uprising | 20th | 10 March 1959 | 23 March 1959 | The 1959 Tibetan Uprising, also known as the Lhasa Uprising, was a revolt against the Chinese government’s rule in Tibet opposing Chinese attempts to remove the Dalai Lama from power. Tibetans rose up against Chinese rule in various regions but were ultimately unsuccessful, and the Dalai Lama, along with tens of thousands of Tibetans were forced to flee into exile in India and other countries. The Chinese government established direct rule over Tibet, which lasts to this day and has been widely criticised for its policies and alleged human rights abuses towards Tibetans. | Asia |
| Invasion of Ambon | Ambonese War of Independence | 20th | 28 September 1950 | 5 November 1950 | The Invasion of Ambon, also known as the Ambonese War of Independence, was launched by the Indonesian Armed Forces to reclaim the island of Ambon and the surrounding regions from the self-proclaimed Republic of South Maluku (RMS). The RMS, which was formed in April 1950, claimed to be the legitimate government of the region and sought independence from Indonesia. The fighting continued for several months, with the Indonesian forces facing stiff resistance from the RMS guerrilla fighters. It ended in an Indonesian victory, and up to 5000 civilians were killed. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1547-1549 | Shwehti War | 16th | October 1547 | February 1549 | The Burmese-Siamese War, also called the Shwehti War, was fought between the Kingdom of Burma (present-day Myanmar) and the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand). The war was notable for introducing modern warfare to the region, particularly by the Burmese forces, who had recently acquired Portuguese matchlocks. The Burmese army attempted to expand their territory eastwards but was unable to overcome the Siamese defences, which maintained Siamese independence for 15 years. The war is also notable in Thai history for the death in battle of Siamese Queen Suriyothai on her war elephant. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1584-1593 | Nandric War | 16th | 1584 | 1593 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1584-1593, also known as the Nandric War, took place in several phases. It was fought between the Burmese dynasty of Toungoo and the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand) over the control of the Malay Peninsula. The war was sparked by Toungoo’s expansionist policy and desire to control the lucrative trade routes in the region. The war ended with the Treaty of Nonthaburi which recognised Siamese control over several key cities in the Malay Peninsula, establishing a period of peace between the two kingdoms until 1765. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1593-1600 | Naresuan War | 16th, 17th | Early 1593 | May 1600 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1593-1600, also called the Naresuan War, was a war between the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam and the Toungoo dynasty of Burma. The war was started by a Siamese campaign to ensure independence following subjugation after the war of 1584-1593. The war ended with a victory by Siam. According to legend, after years of defensive wars, King Naresuan had at the battle of Nong Sarai in 1593 challenged the Crown Prince of Burma, Mingyi Swa, to a one-on-one elephant battle, defeating the king-to-be in front of both armies. This event is celebrated annually in Thailand as Royal Thai Armed Forces Day. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1765-1767 | War of the Second Fall of Ayutthaya | 18th | 23 August 1765 | 7 April 1767 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1765-1767, also called the War of the Second Fall of Ayutthaya, was fought between the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty and the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom. It is considered one of the bloodiest wars in Southeast Asian history and marked the end of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (present-day Thailand). The Burmese caused widespread destruction, capturing the Siamese royal family, and killing thousands. The war ended in a stalemate, as the Burmese were unable to consolidate their hold on Siam and were forced to retreat due to outbreaks of disease and growing resistance from the Siamese people. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1775-1776 | Maha Thiha Thura’s Invasion of Siam | 18th | October 1775 | September 1776 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1775-1776, also called Maha Thiha Thura’s Invasion of Siam or Athi Wungyi’s War, was a conflict between the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty and the Thonburi Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand). The Burmese invaded northern Siam but were eventually defeated by defenders and forced to withdraw from Siamese territory. The war was one of the largest of the period and significantly impacted the region, depopulating large areas of Siam for decades to come. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1785-1786 | Nine Armies’ Wars | 18th | January 1785 | January 1786 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1785-1786, also known as the Nine Armies’ Wars, was fought between the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (present-day Myanmar) and the Thonburi Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand). It was one of several wars between the two over control of key cities on the Tenasserim coast during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Burmese launched an invasion with nine armies but were halted by Siamese forces, who launched a counteroffensive. The war ultimately ended in a stalemate, with neither side able to make significant gains. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1792-1794 | Siamese Invasion of Tavoy | 18th | March 1792 | March 1794 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1792-1794, also called the Siamese Invasion of Tavoy, was fought between the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (present-day Myanmar) and the Chakri Dynasty of Siam (present-day Thailand) over the town of Tavoy and the Tenasserim coast. Both sides suffered heavy losses and a peace treaty was signed. The Burmese ceded Tavoy and the Tenasserim Coast to Siam. The war marked a significant turning point in the history of Burma as it signalled the decline of the Konbaung Dynasty’s power and influence – and, in turn, the rise of Siam as a major regional power. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1809-1812 | Burmese Invasion of Thalang | 19th | June 1809 | January 1812 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1809-1812, also called the Burmese Invasion of Thalang, was an armed conflict fought between Burma under the Konbaung Dynasty (present-day Myanmar) and Siam (present-day Thailand). The war was fought over control of the city of Thalang (present-day Phuket) and surrounding areas on the Tenasserim coast, which the Burmese occupied until the Siamese forces regained control. The conflict was the start of a period of hostility and border disputes between Burma and Siam, lasting several decades. | Asia |
| Burmese-Siamese War of 1849-1855 | Kengtung Wars | 19th | 1849 | May 1855 | The Burmese-Siamese War of 1849-1855, also known as the Kengtung Wars or the Siamese Invasions of Kengtung, was a series of conflicts fought between the Kingdom of Burma (present-day Myanmar) and the Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand) over the control of the Shan state of Kengtung (present-day Shan State, Myanmar). The war resulted in the loss of thousands of lives and the destruction of many towns and villages in Kengtung. It weakened both the Burmese and Siamese kingdoms, making them vulnerable to further foreign aggression. | Asia |
| Australian-Thai Peace Treaty | | 20th | 3 April 1946 | | The Australian–Thai Peace Treaty that ended World War II between Australia and Thailand was signed in Bangkok on 3 April 1946. The full title of the peace treaty is "Final Peace Agreement Between the Government of Australia and the Government of Siam". It was one of the first expressions of Australian sovereignty and independence in foreign affairs after the Statute of Westminster came into effect in 1942. | Asia |
| Yongle Emperor’s Campaigns Against the Mongols | Emperor Chengzu’s Northern Campaigns | 15th | 1410 | 1424 | Yongle Emperor’s Campaigns Against the Mongols, also known as Emperor Chengzu’s Northern Campaigns, were fought between the Chinese Ming dynasty under Emperor Yongle against the Mongol tribes of the northern steppes. The campaigns were part of Yongle’s efforts to consolidate his rule over China, expand his influence in Inner Asia, end Mongol raids on Ming territory, and ensure acknowledgement of Ming suzerainty. These wars cemented China’s dominance over the Mongol tribes of Inner Asia, but also depleted the Ming treasury, subsequently contributing to the decline of the dynasty in the later 16th century. | Asia |
| Tumu Crisis | Crisis of Tumu Fortress | 15th | 1 September 1449 | Unknown | The Tumu Crisis, also called the Crisis of Tumu Fortress, was a military conflict launched by the Mongol Empire against the Ming Dynasty of China, which culminated in a siege of the Tumu Fortress in northern China. The Ming general Wu Jin and his troops were captured during the siege and the Mongols demanded a ransom of 10,000 taels of silver and 10,000 rolls of silk for their release. The Tumu Crisis is regarded as a significant event in Ming history as it marked a turning point in the Ming-Mongol relationship demonstrating the decline of the Ming military and the growing power of the Mongols. | Asia |
| Defence of Jingshi | Defence of Beijing | 15th | 11 October 1449 | 17 October 1449 | The Defense of Jingshi, also known as the Defense of Beijing, was a military conflict between the Oirats, who were Mongolian tribes, and the Ming dynasty of China. The Oirats had been raiding Chinese settlements for years and, in response, the Ming emperor, Zhengtong, ordered a massive army to march north and confront the Oirats. The Ming emperor was captured during battle, leading to the defeat of the Ming dynasty. The crisis led to a change in Ming policy towards the Mongols, with the Ming dynasty adopting a more conciliatory approach towards their northern neighbours. | Asia |
| Chahar-Jurchen War | Chahar-Jin War | 17th | 1619 | 1634 | The Chahar-Jurchen War, also called the Chahar-Jin War, was a major conflict of the late Ming Dynasty in China, fought between the Chahar Mongols and the Jurchen-led Later Jin Dynasty as well as several other Mongol groups. It lasted for several years and was characterised by a series of raids, counter-raids, and sieges. Both sides suffered significant casualties, and ultimately the conflict ended in a stalemate. Weakening both sides, made them vulnerable to outside invasion. The war is significant in the history of the Mongols and the Jurchens, who were later known as the Manchu people. | Asia |
| Song-Đại Việt War | Lý-Song War | 11th | 1075 | 1077 | The Song-Đại Việt War, also known as the Lý-Song War, was a military conflict between the Lý Dynasty of Đại Việt (present-day Vietnam) and the Song Dynasty of China. The conflict began when the Song Dynasty attempted to assert its dominance over its southern neighbour by demanding tribute payments and military support for Song military campaigns. After two years of fighting and a stalemate, the two sides agreed to a peace treaty, which recognised Đại Việt as an independent state. It also established a system of regular tribute payments from Đại Việt to the Song Dynasty. | Asia |
| South Thailand Insurgency | Southern Thailand Conflict | 21st | 4 January 2004 | Ongoing | The South Thailand Insurgency, also known as the Southern Thailand Conflict, is an ongoing conflict concentrated in the predominantly Malay-Muslim provinces of southern Thailand. It is rooted in a long history of tensions between the Muslim population of the southern provinces and the Buddhist central government. Thousands of people have died due to allegations of human rights abuses committed by both sides, including extrajudicial killings, torture, and forced disappearances. Peace talks have been sporadic and largely ineffective. | Asia |
| 1999 East Timorese Crisis | East Timor Conflict | 20th, 21st | April 1999 | 20 May 2002 | The 1999 East Timorese Crisis, also known as the East Timor Conflict, was a political conflict in the nation of East Timor, rooted in decades-long tensions between the Indonesian government and the Timorese people over East Timor’s status as part of Indonesia. The Indonesian government’s referendum on East Timor’s future sparked mass violence with pro-Indonesian militias and military attacking, and carrying out human rights abuses against, the Timorese people. Peacekeeping forces led by the UN helped end the crisis, resulting in East Timor officially becoming Timor-Leste. | Asia |
| Japanese Invasion of Thailand | Thailand Campaign | 20th | 8 December 1941 | August 1945 | The Japanese Invasion of Thailand, also known as the Thailand Campaign, was a military campaign launched by the Empire of Japan during WWII. It resulted in the occupation of Thailand by Japanese forces and the establishment of a collaborationist government. The Japanese demanded the right to move their troops through Thailand to attack British-held Malaya (what is now peninsular Malaysia) and Burma (present-day Myanmar). The Thai government initially resisted but ultimately signed an armistice with Japan, allowing Japanese troops to enter and occupy Thailand. The Thai government also declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom. | Asia |
| Cambodian Rebellion of 1811-1812 | Cambodian Usurpation of 1811-1812 | 19th | 1811 | 1812 | The Cambodian Rebellion of 1811-1812, also called the Cambodian Usurpation of 1811-1812, took place after Ang Snguon had overhtrown his brother King Ang Chan II. Vietnamese military sent assistance to reinstate Ang Chan, resulting in a Siamese-Vietnamese standoff that lasted for four months until the general Nguyễn Văn Nhơn pulled his troops back to Saigon in January 1811. Ang Chan was enthroned again, but the Khmer Kingdom was weak, alternating as a vassal to the Siamese kings and the Vietnamese emperors. | Asia |
| Anglo-Siamese War | Anglo-Thai War | 17th | 1687 | 1688 | The Anglo-Siamese War, also called the Anglo-Thai War, was fought between the English East India Company and the Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand) due to a dispute over the demarcation of the border between Siam and British Malaya. The Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, which defined Siam’s borders with French Indochina and British Malaya, left the boundary between Siam and Malaya unclear, leading to disputes over control, and Siam officially declared war against the Company in August 1687. The conflict is one where a European power was forced to back down during the colonial era. Moreover, it established Siam as a buffer state between French Indochina and British Malaya. | Asia |
| Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 | Bangkok Treaty of 1909 | 20th | 10 March 1909 | | The Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, also known as the Bangkok Treaty of 1909, was a treaty between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand). It ended the territorial disputes between the two countries, which were a result of French territorial expansion in Southeast Asia. Under the terms of the treaty, the British relinquished their claims to parts of north-eastern Siam, while Siam ceded certain Malay states which were subsequently placed under British protection. It also established a joint boundary commission to demarcate the border between Siam and British Malaya. | Asia |
| Kazakh-Dzungar Wars | Dzungarian Conquest of Central Asia | 17th | 1643 | 1756 | The Kazakh-Dzungar Wars, also called the Dzungarian Conquest of Central Asia, were a series of wars between the Kazakh Juzes and the Dzungar Khanate over control of the Central Asian steppe and its resources. The Dzungars were a confederation of Mongol tribes that had established a powerful empire in the 17th century, while the Kazakhs were a Turkic nomadic people forming a confederation of their own. The Dzungars were considered a threat by most of Central Asia, including the Russian Empire. Through several wars with the Qing Dynasty, the entire Dzungar population were ultimately decimated by the Qing army in the Dzungar genocide. | Asia |
| Mongolian Revolution of 1921 | People’s Revolution of 1921 | 20th | 1 March 1921 | 11 July 1921 | The Mongolian Revolution of 1921, also called the People’s Revolution of 1921 or the Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921, was a conflict instigated by sentiment among Mongolians for independence from China and opposition to economic exploitation by Chinese and Russian interests. It resulted in the overthrow of the ruling party and establishment of the Mongolian People’s Republic, with military support from Bolsheviks from Russia. It was the beginning of a new era in Mongolian history, shifting from Chinese to Soviet influence. | Asia |
| Xinjiang Conflict | Uyghur-Chinese Conflict | 20th | 1930 | Ongoing | The Xinjiang Conflict, also known as the Uyghur-Chinese Conflict, is a decades-long conflict with periodic outbreaks of violence between the ethnic Uyghur population and the Chinese government in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The Chinese government has implemented various policies aimed at assimilating and controlling the Uyghur population, who are a predominantly Muslim Turkic ethnic group. Reports of mass detention, surveillance, forced labour, and serious human rights abuses against the Uyghur population have drawn international attention and condemnation. | Asia |
| Sino-Soviet Border Conflict | | 20th | 2 March 1969 | 11 September 1969 | The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict was a series of military clashes between the Soviet Union and China occurring primarily along the border between the two states. It was a result of tensions that had been building since the 1950s, fuelled by ideological and territorial disputes, as well as competition for leadership in the communist world. The conflict was eventually resolved through diplomatic efforts, and a ceasefire was declared leading to a return to the status quo. | Asia |
| Kumul Rebellion | | 20th | 4 April 1931 | 1934 | The Kumul Rebellion was a rebellion of Kumulik Uyghurs against the Kuomintang government in China. It was sparked by a combination of factors, including economic hardship, social inequality, and ethnic tensions. The Uyghur rebels, who were loyalists of the Kumul Khanate, sought to establish an independent Islamic state in the Xinjiang region by restoring the heir to the Khanate and overthrowing Jin Shuren, the governor of Xinjiang. The Chinese government launched a massive military campaign to crush the rebellion, which has since increased tensions between Uyghurs, other minority groups, and the Han Chinese majority. | Asia |
| Nathu La and Cho La Clashes | Sino-Indian War of 1967 | 20th | 11 September 1967 | 1 October 1967 | The Nathu La and Cho La Clashes, also called the Sino-Indian War of 1967, the Second Sino-Indian War, or the Indo-China War of 1967, were a series of border conflicts that took place between India and China in the Indian protectorate of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, which was disputed by both nations. The clashes at Nathu La continued for several days, with both sides suffering casualties. On 1 October, another duel took place at Cho La that ended on the same day. The conflict was resolved through diplomatic channels, with both sides agreeing to withdraw their troops to their respective sides of the border. | Asia |
| Second Chōshū Expedition | Summer War | 19th | 7 June 1866 | Unknown | The Second Chōshū Expedition, also called the Summer War, was launched by the Japanese government against the Chōshū Domain, one of the most powerful domains in Japan at the time. The campaign was part of a larger effort to consolidate centralised authority in the hands of the Emperor and the Meiji government but failed disastrously, with the government forces suffering heavy losses. The signing of the Treaty of Bakan brought an end to the conflict, marking the end of the samurai era and the start of the modernisation of Japan. | Asia |
| Shimabara Rebellion | Shimabara-Amakusa Rebellion | 17th | 17 December 1637 | 15 April 1638 | The Shimabara Rebellion, also known as the Shimabara-Amakusa Rebellion, was an uprising that occurred in the Shimabara Domain of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan. It was led by a group of discontented Japanese peasants and Catholic converts who were protesting the shogunate’s harsh policies on Christianity and the persecution of the lower classes. The shogunate responded by brutally killing thousands of rebels and civilians and tightening its restrictions on Christianity, making it illegal to practice the religion and expelling foreign missionaries from Japan. | Asia |
| Sino-British Joint Declaration | | 20th | 19 December 1984 | | The Sino-British Joint Declaration was a treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the People’s Republic of China which agreed the terms for the transfer of Hong Kong from British to Chinese control as of 1 July 1997. Under the terms set out in the treaty, Hong Kong would enjoy autonomy for 50 years after the transfer, under a ‘one country, two systems’ principle. The treaty also provided for the continued protection of the rights and freedoms of Hong Kong’s residents, including freedom of speech, assembly, and the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and the protection of private property. There is continued dispute over the treaty’s binding status. | Asia |
| Treaty of Tientsin | Treaty of Tianjin | 19th | 26 and 27 June 1858 | | The Treaty of Tientsin, also called the Treaty of Tianjin, was a series of documents signed between the Qing Dynasty of China and the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and the United States on ending the Second Opium War. These treaties are counted among the unequal treaties signed during the Qing Dynasty as they expanded the access of foreign powers to Chinese markets and territory. They allowed foreign powers to establish their diplomatic missions in Beijing, opened additional Chinese ports to foreign trade, legalised the import of opium into China, and granted extraterritoriality to foreign citizens living in China. | Asia |
| Treaty of Aigun | Treaty of Aihun | 19th | May 1858 | | The Treaty of Aigun, also called the Treaty of Aihun, was a treaty between the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty of China. The treaty was signed in Aigun, located on the northern bank of the Amur River, and aimed to settle a border dispute between Russia and China. The treaty gave Russia the right to navigate the Amur River, ceded the left bank of the Amur River and the territory south of the Stanovoy Mountains from China to Russia, and established the Amur River as the border between the two states. Granting the Russian Empire vast new territories, it was one of the unequal treaties that China signed with foreign powers during the Qing Dynasty. | Asia |
| War of Regulation | Regulator Movement | 18th | 1766 | 1771 | The War of Regulation, also known as the Regulator Movement, was fought between citizens of Provincial North Carolina (the Regulators) and British colonial forces from 1766 to 1771. The Regulators believed colonial officials to be corrupt and opposed the taxation and fee system that the officials imposed. The war was mostly fought through small acts of violence, with the Battle of Alamance being the first organised conflict of the war to take place, on 16 May 1771. When the Regulators lost the battle, the movement came to an end. Some of the Regulators were hanged by colonial forces, but the majority were pardoned. | North America |
| Victorio’s War | Victorio Campaign | 19th | 1879 | 1881 | Victorio’s War, also known as the Victorio Campaign, was an armed conflict that took place between Apache followers of Victorio, the United States, and Mexico. Victorio was a warrior and leader of the Chihenne band of Apaches. After being forced from his homeland, like many other Native American groups, and being faced with arrest, Victorio led a guerrilla war, predominantly across the southern United States and northern Mexico. Victorio was killed at the Battle of Tres Castillos in October 1880, alongside many of his fellow warriors. | North America |
| First and Second Cortina War | Cortina Troubles | 19th | 1859 | 1861 | The First and Second Cortina War, also known as the Cortina Troubles, were armed struggles led by Mexican rancher Juan Cortina against constituents of the United States Army. The First Cortina War began at Brownsville in July 1859 as a response to the town marshal, Robert Shears, brutalising Cortina’s former employee, Tomás Cabrera. The struggles lasted a total of four years, with the Second Cortina War only lasting a year, during which Cortina lost 216 men. In July 1875, Cortina was arrested and taken to Mexico City, where he died in 1894. | North America |
| Colorado War | | 19th | 1863 | 1865 | The Colorado War was an armed conflict between the Southern Cheyenne, Arapaho, Brulé, and Lakota peoples and the United States Army, Colorado militia, and white settlers of the Colorado Territory between 1863 and 1865. As a result of the gold rush, there was an increase in the number of white settlers in Colorado, which caused resistance among indigenous groups. | North America |
| Sand Creek Massacre | Chivington Massacre | 19th | 29 November 1864 | 29 November 1864 | The Sand Creek Massacre, also known as the Chivington Massacre, took place on 29 November 1864 and resulted in the death of approximately 150 Native Americans, mostly women and children. A group of cavalrymen from the United States Army opened fire on a community of Cheyenne and Arapaho people, mutilating its inhabitants and subsequently destroying the village. The massacre is considered part of the series of events that constitute the Colorado War, yet stands out as a key event due to the brutal nature of the massacre. | North America |
| Red Cloud’s War | Bozeman War | 19th | 1866 | 1868 | Red Cloud’s War, also known as the Bozeman War or the Powder River War, took place between 1866 and 1868 in the Wyoming and Montana territories. The conflict was between the allied Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples against the United States and the Crow people. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present-day north-central Wyoming. The United States subsequently named the war after Red Cloud, an Oglala Lakota chief associated with the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Laramie | Sioux Treaty of 1868 | 19th | 1868 | | The Treaty of Fort Laramie, also known as the Sioux Treaty of 1868, was an agreement between the government of the United States and various groups from the Sioux and Arapaho peoples. The agreement led to the end of Red Cloud’s War and established the Great Sioux Reservation located to the west of the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota and Nebraska. However, the treaty was never honoured by the United States. | North America |
| Modoc War | Lava Beds War | 19th | 29 November 1872 | 1 June 1873 | The Modoc War, also known as the Lava Beds War, was an armed conflict between the Modoc Native American people and the United States Army. It took place predominantly in the winter of 1872 and the spring of 1873 and was the only major Indian War fought in California. The war began with the army attempting to move the Modoc people back to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon under orders from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The small Modoc force made use of the surrounding lava beds, holding off the more numerous United States Army forces for months. Kintpuash, also known as Captain Jack, a chief of the Modoc tribe, and three warriors were executed, and two others were sentenced to life in prison. The remaining 153 Modoc people of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma),where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909. | North America |
| Colfax Massacre | Colfax Riot | 19th | 13 April 1873 | 13 April 1873 | The Colfax Massacre, also known as the Colfax Riot, took place in the town of Colfax, Louisiana. On 13 April, a large group of armed white men, including members of supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia, attacked the town courthouse in response to an election result. Racial violence escalated brutally into a battle-turned-massacre, resulting in the deaths of approximately 150 African-American citizens and three white citizens. | North America |
| Great Sioux War of 1876 | Black Hills War | 19th | 1876 | 1877 | The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles between the allied Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne against the United States. The Battle of Little Bighorn, also known as Cluster’s Last Stand, is among the many battles that took place during the war and the most storied. It is known for the defeat of the United States forces and the death of Colonel Custer. However, after many military campaigns and diplomatic efforts, the indigenous tribes began to surrender in early 1877. | North America |
| Hamburg Massacre | Red Shirt Massacre | 19th | 8 July 1876 | 8 July 1876 | The Hamburg Massacre, also known as the Red Shirt Massacre, was a massacre which took place on 8 July 1876 in the town of Hamburg, South Carolina. During local elections, white farmers sought to suppress African Americans’ civil rights and voting rights through violence and by charging a Black militia with having obstructed the road on 4 July. The court case was postponed to 8 July, at which point more than 100 armed white men from local counties gathered in town. The African Americans attempted to flee, but many were captured and six were murdered. | North America |
| Buffalo Hunters’ War | Staked Plains War | 19th | 1877 | 1877 | The Buffalo Hunters’ War, also known as the Staked Plains War, was a conflict between Comanche warriors and buffalo hunters. In late 1876, Black Horse led his family and other Comanche warriors to Texas, where they, allied with Apache warriors, in February began attacking the camps of buffalo hunters in the Red River County. The Battle of Yellow House Canyon took place on 18 March, on the High Plains of Texas, and was the peak battle of the conflict. There were casualties on both sides, and the outnumbered hunters were forced to withdraw down the canyon. Many of the Native Americans returned to reservations, and buffalo hunting continued. By the winter of the following year, the main herd of buffalo on the South Plains had been destroyed. | North America |
| Wounded Knee Massacre | Battle of Wounded Knee | 19th | 29 December 1890 | 29 December 1890 | The Wounded Knee Massacre, also known as the Battle of Wounded Knee, was a conflict between the United States Army and the Lakota Sioux Native Americans which resulted in the deaths of approximately 250 Lakota Sioux people, and 33 soldiers of the United States Army. In the year before the massacre, the Lakota Sioux people had begun to take up a revived native religion referred to as the Ghost Dance, which alarmed the settlers. The Ghost Dance Lakota Sioux subsequently attempted to move to another Native American reservation, but whilst migrating, they came under fire by the 7th Cavalry. | North America |
| Northern Cheyenne Exodus | Dull Knife’s Raid | 19th | September 1878 | 27 March 1879 | The Northern Cheyenne Exodus, also known as Dull Knife’s Raid, was a conflict between the Northern Cheyenne people and the United States Army. After being placed in the Southern Cheyenne reservation, the Northern Cheyenne left the reservation in an attempt to return to the North. The exodus started on 10 September 1878 when the Northern Cheyenne fled north, with several battles taking place on the way. By April 1979, the Northern Cheyenne had surrendered. Five years later, President Chester A. Arthur created a reservation for the Northern Cheyenne in their homeland of Montana. | North America |
| Hells Canyon Massacre | Snake River Massacre | 19th | May 1887 | Exact dates contested | The Hells Canyon Massacre, also known as the Snake River Massacre, took place over two days in May 1887, the exact dates of which are contested. Thirty-one Chinese miners were killed when seven white horse thieves ambushed and gunned down the miners with the aim of robbery. Due to the remoteness of Hells Canyon, which provides a boundary between Idaho and Oregon, little is known about the massacre. | North America |
| Garza Revolution | Garza War | 19th | 15 September 1891 | March 1893 | The Garza Rebellion, also known as the Garza War, was an armed conflict between Mexican revolutionaries and the allied Mexican and United States Army. The war started on 15 September 1891 when Catarino Garza led Mexican revolutionaries into Mexico from Texas, declaring a revolution against Mexico’s dictator, Porfirio Diaz. After approximately two years of fighting, the Mexican American allied forces defeated the revolutionaries. Garza fled to Costa Rica and was subsequently killed in Panama in 1895. | North America |
| Bay View Massacre | Bay View Tragedy | 19th | 5 May 1886 | 5 May 1886 | The Bay View Massacre, also known as the Bay View Tragedy, occurred on 5 May 1886 following a mass strike that had taken place intending to create eight-hour working day laws. Thousands of protestors had taken to the streets of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and on 5 May 1886, approximately 1,500 protestors made their way to Bay View Rolling Mills, a company notorious for abusing employees through excessive labour. Governor Jeremiah Rush, who had called to the scene the local militia, ordered the protestors to disperse. When they did not, the militia fired into the crowd, killing seven people including a young boy. | North America |
| Aroostook War | Madawaska War | 19th | Date contested, 1838 | 21 March 1839 | The Aroostook War, also called the Madawaska War, was a bloodless conflict between the United States and the United Kingdom over the disputed boundary between the US state of Maine and the British Canadian Province of New Brunswick. Actual combat did not take place, as the dispute mostly involved arrests and the taking of political prisoners. Although there was a call for a militia to be formed, a truce was called on 21 March 1839. The boundary was later settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. | North America |
| Webster-Ashburton Treaty | | 19th | 9 August 1842 | | The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, signed on 9 August 1842, was a treaty that established the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, resolving the Aroostook War of 1838-1839. Negotiated by Daniel Webster, US Secretary of State, and Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, it was signed under the presidency of John Taylor. | North America |
| Treaty of Alliance | Franco-American Treaty | 18th | 6 February 1778 | | The Treaty of Alliance, also known as the Franco-American Treaty, was a military defence treaty signed by the United States of America and France on 6 February 1778, written in both English and French. It formalised France’s support of the American Revolutionary War against the British, in both financial and military terms. The treaty stipulated that upon victory, France would recognise the independence of the United States. | North America |
| Treaty of Amity and Commerce | | 18th | 6 February 1778 | | The Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which was signed by the United States of America and France, recognised the United States as an independent nation, thereby promoting trade between the two countries. Throughout the late 1700s, a Treaty of Amity and Commerce was by the United States presented to several countries, but the one signed with France was the first to be ratified. It was signed alongside the Treaty of Alliance. | North America |
| Model Treaty | Plan of 1776 | 18th | 17 September 1776 | | The Model Treaty was drafted in 1776 by the United States government as a template for commercial treaties with other nations to secure assistance in the American Revolutionary War against Great Britain. The treaty was approved by Congress on 17 September 1776. Future treaties such as the Treaty of Alliance (1778) and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1778),both signed by France and the United States, were heavily influenced by the Model Treaty. | North America |
| Meeker Massacre | Meeker Incident | 19th | 29 September 1879 | 29 September 1879 | The Meeker Massacre, also known as the Meeker Incident, was an uprising on the Ute Reservation. Chief Douglas and a group of other Ute Native American warriors killed Indian agent Nathan Meeker and seven other members of the White River Indian Agency in Colorado. An Indian agent was an individual authorised to interact with indigenous tribes on behalf of the US government. Meeker had previously wanted the Ute people to become farmers. When the Ute people resisted, Meeker requested military force. On the same day, the warriors killed Major Thomas Thornburgh, alongside nine of his men, in battle. With the arrival of reinforcements, the Ute warriors were sent to a reservation in Utah. | North America |
| Hawn’s Mill Massacre | Haun’s Mill Massacre | 19th | 30 October 1838 | 30 October 1838 | The Hawn’s Mill Massacre, also known as the Haun’s Mill Massacre, took place on 30 October 1838 when a company of militiamen attacked a Mormon settlement at Hawn’s Mill in Missouri. The attack was part of the escalating violence that drove Latter-day Saints out of the state of Missouri. 17 people, some of whom were children, were murdered. | North America |
| Lawrence Massacre | Quantrill’s Raid on Lawrence | 19th | 21 August 1863 | 21 August 1863 | The Lawrence Massacre, also known as Quantrill’s Raid on Lawrence, was an attack that took place during the American Civil War, killing approximately 150 unarmed men and boys in Lawrence, Kansas. A Confederate group led by William Quantrill launched the raid due to the town’s long-standing support of abolition. Lawrence was seen as the anti-slavery stronghold in Kansas and a headquarter for Unionist and Jayhawker incursions into pro-slavery Missouri. | North America |
| Battle of Sugar Point | Battle of Leech Lake | 19th | 5 October 1898 | 5 October 1898 | The Battle of Sugar Point, also known as the Battle of Leech Lake, was a conflict between the 3rd United States Infantry and members of the Pillager Band of Chippewa Native Americans. The battle took place on 5 October 1898 and was an attempt by the United States Army to capture a member of the Pillager Band known as Ojibwe Bugonaygeshig. The battle resulted in a victory for the Chippewa people and Bugonaygeshig escaped. | North America |
| Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation | Jay Treaty | 18th | 19 November 1794 | | The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, more commonly known as the Jay Treaty, was signed on 19 November 1794 by John Jay and William Grenville 1st Baron Grenville, for the United States and Great Britain, respectively. The document was officially ratified by President George Washington in 1795 and resolved many of the issues between the two states that had arisen following the Treaty of Paris of 1783. | North America |
| Louisiana Purchase Treaty | | 19th | 30 April 1803 | | The Louisiana Purchase Treaty, signed by the United States of America and France, agreed to the United States purchasing approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River. Negotiated by James Monroe and Robert Livingston, the transaction doubled the size of the United States of America. The entire Louisiana territory, an area larger than Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal combined, was bought for $15 million at the currency rate of the time, equivalent to approximately $400 million in 2023. | North America |
| Snake War | | 19th | 1864 | 1868 | The Snake War was an armed conflict between the United States and Native American nations, including Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Western Shoshone peoples. The war was fought between 1864 and 1868 and was referred to as the Snake War due the settlers’ term for the Native Americans living along the Snake River as ‘Snakes’. The fighting primarily took place in the Idaho territory, now known as the individual states of Oregon, Nevada, and California, and eventually ended in peace talks. The Native Americans who were not included in the negotiations were rounded up and taken to reservations. | North America |
| Bannock War | | 19th | June 1878 | August 1878 | The Bannock War was an armed conflict between the Shoshone-Bannock Native American tribe against the United States Army which took place between June and August 1878 in Idaho and north-eastern Oregon. The conflict began because of multiple factors, but as conditions in the Fort Hall Reservation worsened, a large group of Bannock warriors left the reservation, after which the US Army was ordered to return them to Fort Hall. The Bannock people were led by Chief Buffalo Horn, who died during the conflict, and although his death did not signify the end of the conflict, many Bannock tribe members subsequently returned to the reservation. | North America |
| Coushatta Massacre | | 19th | August 1874 | August 1874 | The Coushatta Massacre of 1874 was an attack by the White League, a white paramilitary organisation believing in white supremacy and seeking to drive out Republicans from Louisiana. Tensions arose when Thomas Floyd, an African American Union Army veteran serving in the Louisiana State Senate as a Republican, was murdered on 25 August 1874. The massacre resulted in the death of six white Republicans and approximately 20 freedmen. None of the White League members were brought to trial due to a claimed lack of evidence. | North America |
| Election Massacre of 1874 | | 19th | 3 November 1874 | 3 November 1874 | The Election Massacre of 1874 took place in Eufaula, Alabama on 3 November 1874. Elias Keils, a white candidate who supported the aims of Reconstruction, was primarily supported by Black residents of Eufaula, Alabama. At the time of the massacre, Keils tried to inform state officials about the danger Black members of the community were facing as white residents used terror and intimidation to suppress their right to vote, but federal troops refused to intervene. It is estimated that six Black people were killed, with many more injured. | North America |
| Nez Perce War | | 19th | June 1877 | October 1877 | The Nez Perce War was an armed conflict between the Nez Perce tribe of Native Americans and their allies against the United States Army. The war was fought over the Nez Perce people not wanting to relinquish their ancestral land and move to a government-authorised reservation. Eventually, the Nez Perce Native Americans surrendered, and an estimated 432 people were sent to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, to be moved to Indian Territory in Oklahoma the year after the war. | North America |
| Lattimer Massacre | | 19th | 10 September 1897 | 10 September 1897 | The Lattimer Massacre, which occurred on 10 September 1897, resulted in the death of 19 unarmed striking immigrant coal miners. Whilst protesting poor working conditions in Lattimer, Pennsylvania, around 400 striking miners were harassed by an amalgamation of law enforcement, including coal-company police, many of whom were armed with rifles. Miners were ordered to abandon the protest and when they refused, shots were fired by the police and county deputy sheriffs. | North America |
| Clayton-Bulwer Treaty | | 19th | 19 April 1850 | | The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was signed on 19 April 1850 by John M. Clayton, US Secretary of State, and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British minister to Washington D.C. The treaty was a form of compromise agreeing that both countries would not colonise Central America. It also proposed that neither country would have exclusive control over the Central American canal. | North America |
| Treaty of Ghent | | 19th | 24 December 1814 | | The Treaty of Ghent, signed on 24 December 1814 in the city of Ghent, United Netherlands, was a peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain which ended the War of 1812. Taking effect in February 1815, the treaty restored the national borders that existed before the war, thereby restoring the relationship between the two states. | North America |
| Marais des Cygnes Massacre | | 19th | 19 May 1858 | 19 May 1858 | The Marais des Cygnes Massacre took place on 19 May 1858 in the Kansas Territory. Pro-slavery men, led by Charles A. Hamilton, captured 11 unarmed free-state settlers, killing five of them. The remaining six settlers survived although wounded. Hamilton was never arrested for the massacre and later served as a colonel in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. | North America |
| Patriot War | | 19th | 8 January 1838 | 4 December 1838 | The Patriot War was fought between the Republic of Canada Hunters’ Lodge (the Patriots) and British forces allied with the United States government throughout 1838. Several battles were fought in the Great Lakes Basin in both America and Canada, to overthrow the British rule of Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). William Lyon MacKenzie led the rebellion against the British rule over Upper Canada and gained the support of Canadians and Americans alike. When the war came to an end, the British hanged 11 American sympathisers and sent many more patriots to penal colonies in Australia. | North America |
| Pottawatomie Massacre | | 19th | 24 May 1856 | 25 May 1856 | The Pottawatomie massacre was a violent reply to pro-slavery forces sacking the town of Lawrence, a town founded by anti-slavery settlers two years prior. John Brown and a group of abolitionist settlers killed five pro-slavery settlers in Franklin County near the Pottawatomie Creek, an attack which exacerbated tensions around slavery politics during the ‘Bleeding Kansas’ period. | North America |
| American Civil War | | 19th | 12 April 1861 | 26 May 1865 | The American Civil War was an armed conflict between Union and Confederate forces, more commonly referred to as the ‘the North’ and ‘the South’, respectively. The war was primarily fought due to opposing views on slavery and the expansion of the slave trade into western territories. After four years, the war ended in victory for the Union forces who opposed slavery, which resulted in the abolition of slavery, the collapse of the Confederacy, and approximately four million enslaved Black people being freed. | North America |
| Opelousas Massacre | | 19th | 28 September 1868 | 28 September 1868 | The Opelousas Massacre was instigated by white democrats unwilling to concede power in the elections of 1868. With the ratification of Louisiana’s Constitution of 1868 and the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and voting rights to all previously enslaved people following the American Civil War, tensions between white democrats and Black citizens reached breaking point. To suppress voter turnout, white supremacists hunted down, abused, and lynched African Americans. It is estimated that up to 300 Black citizens, and several dozen whites, were killed during the massacre. | North America |
| Treaty of Moultrie Creek | | 19th | 18 September 1823 | | The Treaty of Moultrie Creek was a peace treaty between the United States Government and the Seminole Native American leaders which signified an end to the First Seminole War. Signed on 18 September 1823, it resulted in the relocation of the Seminole people to a reservation of four million acres in central Florida. | North America |
| Red River War | | 19th | 1874 | 1875 | The Red River War, which took place between 1874 and 1875, was the last major conflict between the United States Army and the Southern Plains Native Americans. The United States Army launched a military campaign intending to displace and relocate several Native American groups from the Southern Plains into reservations designated by the government. The Native American groups involved in this conflict included the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples. Throughout the war, both sides engaged in approximately 20 battles, with the United States victory eventually defeating the Native American peoples. | North America |
| Medicine Lodge Treaty | | 19th | 21-28 October 1867 | | The Medicine Lodge Treaty is the joint name for three treaties between the United States government and Southern Plains Native American groups signed between 21 and 28 October 1867. Each treaty was signed by the United States and separate tribes of Native Americans. The treaty agreed upon two reservations in Native American territory being free of European-American settlement, with the government providing various basic services, such as housing. The treaty eventually collapsed as the United States government largely failed to provide what had been set out in the treaty, subsequently triggering the Red River War of 1874. | North America |
| Mountain Meadows Massacre | | 19th | 7 September 1857 | 11 September 1857 | The Mountain Meadows Massacre took place between 7 and 11 September 1857, during the Utah War. The massacre involved numerous attacks on the Baker-Fancher wagon train and was carried out by Mormon settlers in the Utah territory. The Baker-Fancher wagon train transported Arkansas emigrant families heading to Southern California. Between 120 to 140 Baker-Fancher emigrants were murdered. | North America |
| Las Cuevas War | | 19th | 20 November 1875 | 21 November 1875 | The Las Cuevas War was an armed conflict fought between a group of Texas Rangers and a small Mexican militia over two days. The conflict is an example of the tensions that built between Texas and Mexico when Texas gained independence from Mexico and became part of the United States. The war was fought because of Texan cattle being stolen and taken over the Mexican border. The war resulted in a US victory with the cattle being returned to Texas, and nearly all the Mexican fighters were killed. | North America |
| Thibodaux Massacre | | 19th | 22 November 1887 | 23 November 1887 | The Thibodaux Massacre took place following a three-week strike in which 10,000 workers protested the living and working conditions on sugar plantations in four parishes across Louisiana. Parish District Judge Taylor Beattie enforced martial law and recruited white men to form a local militia, resulting in the deaths of approximately 60 African American farm workers in a mass shooting. After the massacre, an official inquiry was not undertaken, and the militiamen went without punishment. | North America |
| Royal Proclamation of 1763 | | 18th | 7 October 1763 | | The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was a treaty issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. The treaty followed the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the Seven Years’ War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. To encourage peace with the native peoples of Canada and America, the Royal Proclamation recognised the sovereignty of the indigenous people living west of the British colonies. It set out what is known as the proclamation line, establishing a boundary between colonised and Native American lands. | North America |
| Bannock War of 1895 | Bannock Uprising | 19th | July 1895 | July 1895 | The Bannock War of 1895, also known as the Bannock Uprising, took place in July 1895 and refers to a minor conflict in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. In the 1890s, Wyoming passed a law prohibiting the killing of elk, which Bannock Native Americans had long hunted for food. This led to several arrests of Bannock hunters in July 1895 for poaching. Rumours of Native American violence against settlers propagated, but when the United States Army was called in, they found that the Bannock people were peaceful. | North America |
| Colorado Labour Wars | | 20th | 1903 | 1904 | The Colorado Labour Wars were a series of labour strikes in 1903 and 1904. The strikes occurred in seven cities across the US state of Colorado. Organised by gold and silver miners as well as mill workers represented by the Western Federation of Miners, the strikes were opposed by mine owners and businessmen who were backed by the government. As a result of the violence that ensued, martial law was imposed by the Colorado National Guard and other militia organisations. | North America |
| Ludlow Massacre | | 20th | 20 April 1914 | 20 April 1914 | The Ludlow Massacre occurred on 20 April 1914 during the Colorado Coalfield War. The massacre was an attack on striking coal miners by anti-striker groups. Soldiers from the Colorado National Guard and guards employed by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company attacked a tent colony of striking workers, which resulted in the deaths of 25 people, including 11 children. After the massacre, there was increased violence throughout the state, and many strikes turned to violent methods to protest poor working conditions. It is estimated that another 50 people died during the reaction to the Ludlow Massacre. The strike ended on 10 December 1914, almost eight months after the massacre. | North America |
| Colorado Coalfield War | | 20th | 23 September 1913 | December 1914 | The Colorado Coalfield War took place between September 1913 and December 1914 and is known as a major labour uprising in Colorado. Strikes were organised by the United Mine Workers of America against the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company to protest poor working conditions as the miners had the highest mortality rate in the USA. The Ludlow Massacre was the most violent and tragic event of the war, although violence and armed conflict continued until December 1914. The strike ended in a stalemate between the two factions. | North America |
| Illinois Coal Wars | Illinois Mine Wars | 19th | 1898 | 1900 | The Illinois Coal Wars, also known as the Illinois Mine Wars, were a series of labour disputes between 1898 and 1900. The strikes began in Virden, Illinois and resulted in the death of six security guards and seven miners, with many more injured. Although the Chicago-Virden Coal Company in this instance eventually granted a wage increase for their miners, several other strikes took place throughout Illinois during the Illinois Coal Wars that only resulted in violence between the opposing factions. | North America |
| Pana Riot | Pana Massacre | 19th | 10 April 1899 | 10 April 1899 | The Pana Riot, also known as the Pana Massacre, occurred on 10 April 1899 during the Illinois Coal Wars. Both a labour and racial conflict, it took place after a strike had been called by the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) and mine owners hired hundreds of guards and African American workers to serve as strike-breakers. This caused a great deal of tension and the deaths of eight people. | North America |
| Mexican Border War | Mexican Border Campaign | 20th | 20 November 1910 | June 1919 | The Mexican Border War, also known as the Mexican Border Campaign, was a series of armed conflicts fought between Mexico and America, which occurred along the Mexican-American border during the Mexican Revolution. As WWI was being fought in Europe, German forces also attacked America in the Mexican Border War. The war ended with an American victory at the Battle of Ciudad Juárez. | North America |
| Crazy Snake Rebellion | Smoked Meat Rebellion | 20th | March 1909 | March 1909 | The Crazy Snake Rebellion, also known as the Smoked Meat Rebellion, was a minor armed conflict between the Creek Native American people and American settlers. Chitto Harjo, which loosely translates as Crazy Snake in English, led the Creek people. In March 1909, an ally of the Creek people was accused of stealing a piece of smoked meat from a local white farmer, and American law enforcement attempted to arrest the accused. When the Creek people resisted the local county authority, it resulted in two skirmishes. Three people died, and many African Americans were arrested. | North America |
| Paint Creek-Cabin Creek Strike | Paint Creek Mine War | 20th | 18 April 1912 | July 1913 | The Paint Creek-Cabin Creek Strike, also known as the Paint Creek Mine War, was a conflict between striking coal miners and coal operators in West Virginia. The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) called for a strike on 18 April 1912, which lasted until July 1913. Throughout the strike, there were instances of violence, and martial law was imposed numerous times. The 13-month-long struggle resulted in the death of 12 mining strikers and 13 coal company men. When the strike ended in July 1913, little changed for the miners in West Virginia, but the conflict sparked more strikes across the United States. | North America |
| Bluff War | Posey War of 1915 | 20th | March 1914 | March 1915 | The Bluff War, also known as the Posey War of 1915, was an armed conflict between the United States and Ute and Paiute Native Americans. The Native American people were led by two warriors called Polk and Posey. Several Utes accused Tse-ne-gat, also known as Everett Hatch, who was the son of the Paiute Chief Narraguinnep, Polk, of killing a shepherd, Juan Chacon. As a result, numerous skirmishes between the Native Americans and local law enforcement occurred throughout Utah. The final conflict occurred in Bluff City and Tse-ne-gat later surrendered. He was put on trial in Denver, but eventually returned to his people. | North America |
| Posey War | Last Indian Uprising | 20th | 20 March 1923 | 23 March 1923 | The Posey War, also known as the Last Indian Uprising, was an armed conflict between white settlers and Ute and Paiute Native Americans led by Chief Posey. Multiple conflicts had occurred in the area between the same factions, and this particular conflict was the result of two members of Posey’s people being arrested for supposedly killing livestock. The sheriff of San Juan County issued an order for Posey’s group to be captured and imprisoned. The Native Americans who were not captured fought back against the sheriff and the white settlers. Within a few weeks, Chief Posey was killed, and the fighting stopped. | North America |
| Women’s Day Massacre | | 20th | 19 June 1937 | 19 June 1937 | The Women’s Day Massacre took place on 19 June 1937 in Youngstown, Ohio. In previous years there had been conflicts between the Steel Workers Organising Committee (SWOC) and the steel companies throughout Ohio. The SWOC women’s auxiliary organised a ‘Women’s Day’ on the picket line. Although SWOC encouraged women to strike alongside the men, the Youngstown police force, particularly police captain Charley Richmond, held the opposing view. To remove women from the picket line, law enforcement used tear gas and eventually fired into the crowd of protestors. The violence resulted in the deaths of 16 people and wounded approximately 200. | North America |
| Treaty of Oregon | | 19th | 15 June 1846 | | The Treaty of Oregon was signed on 15 June 1846 by Great Britain and the United States of America. It signalled the end of 28 years of joint occupancy of the Pacific Northwest. It was apparent that the Northwest was becoming increasingly American, owing to migration being encouraged through the Oregon Trail. The treaty established the so-called 49th parallel north, a circle of latitude that is 49 degrees north of the equator, as the new border between the countries, resulting in British possession of Vancouver Island. The treaty was ratified on 14 August 1848 by the American Congress. | North America |
| Battle of the Belly River | | 19th | 25 October 1870 | 25 October 1870 | The Battle of the Belly River took place on 25 October 1870 between the Cree and Blackfoot Native American peoples. This battle is known as the last armed conflict between indigenous groups in Canada. Taking advantage of a Blackfoot group weakened after a smallpox outbreak, Cree warriors attempted to attack the Blackfoot camp. Eventually, Blackfoot warriors took the high ground and forced Cree warriors to retreat. Approximately 300 Cree were killed, while only 40 Blackfoot warriors died. | North America |
| Treaty of 1818 | London Convention | 19th | 20 October 1818 | 1842 | The Treaty of 1818, also known as the London Convention, is a treaty between Great Britain and the United States of America which resolved some of the continuing border issues between the two countries. The treaty secured fishing rights along the province of Newfoundland and Labrador for the US and established the 49th parallel as the border between British colonies and the US, as later reaffirmed in the Treaty of Oregon Treaty, 1846. The Treaty of 1818 came into effect in 1819 but was revised in 1842. | North America |
| Treaty of New Echota | | 19th | 29 December 1835 | | The Treaty of New Echota was signed by United States of America government officials and representatives from a minority Cherokee faction known as the Treaty Party. Signed on 29 December 1835 in New Echota, Georgia, it led to the removal of Cherokees from their south-eastern territories. As a result, the Treaty Party received approximately $5 million in exchange for seven million acres of ancestral land and were moved to Native American territory west of the Mississippi River. Although many Cherokee members opposed the treaty, it was ratified in March 1836. | North America |
| Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty | Elgin-Marcy Treaty | 19th | 1854 | March 1866 | The Reciprocity Treaty, also known as the Elgin-Marcy Treaty, was a trade treaty signed by the United States of America and the United Kingdom. The treaty was signed in 1854 and established more favourable trading terms for the import and export of raw materials between North American and British North American colonies. The name Elgin-Marcy relates to Lord Elgin and W. L. Marcy who signed the treaty. Several economic and political factors after the American Civil War led to the abolition of the treaty in March 1866. | North America |
| Treaty of Detroit | | 19th | 17 November 1807 | | The Treaty of Detroit was signed on 17 November 1807 by the United States of America and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi nations of Native Americans. The treaty led to Native American tribes ceding approximately eight million acres of land to the United States government. As recompense, the government paid them a small sum of money and forced them to move from their lands. The treaty was amongst those in which the United States government designated reservations for Native Americans to live on. | North America |
| Treaty of Saginaw | Treaty with the Chippewa | 19th | 24 September 1819 | | The Treaty of Saginaw, also known as the Treaty with the Chippewa, was signed on 24 September 1819 by the United States of America and the Ojibwe (called Ojibwe in Canada and Chippewa in the US),Ottawa, and Potawatomi tribes. The treaty led to the Native American tribes ceding six million acres to the United States government, leaving the Ojibwe with reserved sections of land for themselves and the right to continue living on the territory. | North America |
| Treaty of Washington of 1871 | | 19th | 8 May 1871 | | The Treaty of Washington of 1871 was signed and ratified by the United Kingdom and the United States. The treaty settled several disputes between the countries, including the Alabama Claims, which were a series of claims for damages by the US government against the United Kingdom for the assistance given to the Confederate cause during the American Civil War. Although the treaty was signed in the name of the British Empire, the newly formed Dominion of Canada was involved in settling issues that affected Canada directly. | North America |
| Treaty of Washington of 1836 | Treaty with the Ottawa | 19th | 28 March 1836 | | The Treaty of Washington, also known as the Treaty with the Ottawa, was signed by the United States of America and the Ottawa and Chippewa Native American peoples on 28 March 1836. The treaty led to the Ottawa and Chippewa peoples ceding approximately 13 million acres of land to the US government. In a similar way to previous treaties between the US government and Native Americans based in Michigan, tribes would be removed from the land they had given up and placed on reservations designated by the government. | North America |
| Everett Massacre | Bloody Sunday | 20th | 5 November 1916 | 5 November 1916 | The Everett Massacre, also known as Bloody Sunday, was an armed conflict in Everett, Washington between local authorities and members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) union. On 5 November 1916, 300 IWW members marched towards the docks in protest of poor working conditions and low wages and in support of the shingle weavers’ strike. At the docks, approximately 200 citizen deputies under the authority of County Sheriff McRae stood ready. When the two groups met, gunfire began, resulting in the deaths of five IWW members, and two citizen deputies, and with many more wounded. | North America |
| Battle of Bear Valley | | 20th | 9 January 1918 | 9 January 1918 | The Battle of Bear Valley was an armed conflict between a group of Yaqui Native Americans and a detachment from the United States Army. On 8 January 1918, Phillip C. Clarke, a local cattleman and mercantile owner, rode to the United States Army camp to inform Captain Ryder that one of his cows had been killed. It was assumed that Yaqui people had killed the cow, and as the 10th Cavalry Regiment had detected about 30 armed Yaquis in Bear Valley, Ryder strengthened his defences. When fighting broke out the following day, it resulted in the death of one Yaqui and the imprisonment of the remaining warriors. | North America |
| Centralia Massacre | Armistice Day Riot | 20th | 11 November 1919 | 11 November 1919 | The Centralia Tragedy, also known as the Armistice Day Riot, was a massacre that took place in Centralia, Washington, on 11 November 1919. During a parade celebrating the first anniversary of Armistice Day, a conflict between the American Legion, an organisation for war veterans, and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW),escalated. IWW efforts to open a hall for local members in Centralia had been opposed by the IWW, and on this day, the American Legion marched to the hall. The confrontation led to six deaths in total, including the lynching of Wesley Everest, an IWW logger. | North America |
| Herrin Massacre | | 20th | 21 June 1922 | 22 June 1922 | The Herrin Massacre took place between the 21 and 22 June 1922 in the coal mining area of Herrin, Illinois during a nationwide strike organised by the United Mineworkers of America (UMWA). Initially, the owner of the mine agreed to observe the strike but reneged and hired other non-union workers to mine the coal. As a response to the owner breaking his agreement, the striking union members shot at the hired workers and the armed guards. Over the two days of violence, it is estimated that 21 people died across both factions, with many more injured. | North America |
| Battle of Kelley Creek | Last Massacre | 20th | 25 February 1911 | February 1911 | The Battle of Kelley Creek, also known as the Last Massacre, took place between a Shoshone band of Native Americans and a group of law enforcement posse in Nevada. In January 1911, the Shoshone band was accused of killing four cattlemen. As a result, the band was tracked by a group of policemen and other citizens, and they were eventually found in a region called Kelley Creek. The battle resulted in the deaths of eight Shoshone people and one member of the law enforcement posse. | North America |
| Battle of Matewan | Matewan Massacre | 21st | 19 May 1920 | 19 May 1920 | The Battle of Matewan, also known as the Matewan Massacre, took place on 19 May 1920 in Matewan, West Virginia. The battle was fought by local coal miners and their allies, including the town mayor and sheriff, against the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency. The Baldwin-Felts Detective Company arrived in Matewan to evict miners and their families from the houses provided by Stone Mountain Coal Company after the miners had either joined the United Mine Workers of America Union (UMWA) or refused to sign yellow-dog contracts that meant they could never join a union. A total of ten men died, including seven detectives, two miners, and the mayor. | North America |
| Battle of Blair Mountain | | 21st | 25 August 1921 | 2 September 1921 | The Battle of Blair Mountain took place between 25 August and 2 September 1921 in West Virginia. One of the largest civil uprisings in United States history, it saw 10,000 armed coal miners march in protest of low wages and poor working and housing conditions. The striking miners faced approximately 3,000 lawmen and strike-breakers, which resulted in military intervention, and the subsequent surrender of the miners. The exact number of deaths is unknown, but it is estimated that casualties ranged from 20 to 100 people. | North America |
| Treaty of Cahuenga | Capitulation of Cahuenga | 19th | 13 January 1847 | | The Treaty of Cahuenga, also known as the Capitulation of Cahuenga, was a treaty signed on 13 January 1847 which ended the hostilities between Californios and the United States Army during the Mexican-American War. John C. Fremont signed on behalf of the United States, and one year after the signing, California was ceded to the United States of America. | North America |
| Anderson-Gual Treaty | | 19th | 3 October 1824 | 1837 | The Anderson-Gual Treaty was signed by the United States of America and Gran Colombia. Signed on 3 October 1824, it was the first bilateral treaty between the United States of America and another American country. It was signed by the diplomat Richard Clough Anderson and Pedro Gual Escandon, the Gran Colombian minister. It was ratified in May 1925 by both countries, and it was agreed that it would expire after 12 years. The treaty ensured peaceful and favourable trade between the two nations. | North America |
| First World War | Great War | 20th | 28 July 1914 | 11 November 1918 | The First World War, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict involving over 30 nations. Origins of the war are complex; following years of diplomatic tension and shifting balance of power between European empires, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand led the Austro-Hungarian Empire to declare war on Serbia, and to pursue German support against Russian military intervention. Russia supported Serbia as it was seeking Balkan control and military advantage over Germany and Austria-Hungary. | Europe |
| Treaty of Versailles | | 20th | 28 June 1919 | | The Treaty of Versailles was one of three peace treaties signed at the Paris Peace Conference. It brought a close to the war between Germany and most Allied Powers. The treaty stipulated the forced disarmament of Germany, including restricting the size of its army and munitions manufacture. Rhineland was made a demilitarized zone according to the treaty, which Germany was forced to sign. Germany later violated this agreement. | Europe |
| Treaty of Saint-Germain | Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye | 20th | 10 September 1919 | | The Treaty of Saint-Germain provided peace terms between the Allied Nations and Austria-Hungary. It formally dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire and assigned the new Republic of Austria (along with other Central Powers) responsibility for starting the conflict. The treaty also restricted the size of the new Republic’s army, provided for war reparations to the Allied Nations, and created independent Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. | Europe |
| Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine | | 20th | 27 November 1919 | | The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine provided peaceful terms between the Allied nations and Bulgaria. The Treaty ordered the payment of war reparations and the return of property seized through Bulgarian military occupation during the war. It also restricted the size of the Bulgarian army and required Bulgaria to cede various territories. | Europe |
| Treaty of Trianon | Dictate of Trianon | 20th | 4 June 1920 | | The Treaty of Trianon, also known as the Dictate of Trianon, provided peace terms between the Allied nations and Hungary (an independent state following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). It restricted the size of Hungary’s army and drastically reduced the size of its former territory, leaving it a landlocked state. The treaty also stipulated that Hungary pay war reparations to the Allied nations. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision started immediately after. | Europe |
| Treaty of Sèvres | Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey | 20th | 10 August 1920 | | The Treaty of Sèvres, the full name of which is the Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey, set out terms of peace between the Allied nations and the Ottoman Empire. It began the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, allocating to Allied nations most territory not inhabited by Turkish people. Other provisions included granting the Allied forces control of the Ottoman Empire’s finances and restrictions concerning the size of the Ottoman Empire’s army. | Europe |
| Second World War | | 20th | 1 September 1939 | 2 September 1945 | The Second World War was a global conflict that was primarily triggered by the invasion of Poland by Germany. In response, the British Empire and France declared war on Germany. The invasion of Poland was the result of years of aggressive territorial expansion by Nazi Germany, pursued under the guise of restoring Germany to a level of economic and political stability considered ‘lost’ under the Treaty of Versailles. The Allies sought to end German military aggression and its imperialist ambitions. | Europe |
| Treaty of San Francisco | Treaty of Peace with Japan | 20th | 8 September 1951 | | The Treaty of San Francisco, also known as the Treaty of Peace with Japan, provided the terms of peace between Allied nations and Japan in the wake of the Second World War. The agreement stipulated that Japan pay war reparations to the Allies and former prisoners of war, while ending Allied military occupation of Japan. | Europe |
| Greek Civil War | | 20th | 1944 | 1949 | The Greek Civil War broke out between rival resistances to Axis occupation in Greece, each opposing rule by the exiled monarchist government. Resistance groups included the communist National Liberation Front (which received some support from the USSR and Yugoslavia) and the anti-communist National Greek Republican League (covertly supported by the British). These forces clashed following the German retreat from Greece in September 1944 and ended in the defeat of the Communists. | Europe |
| Treaty of Paris with Italy | | 20th | 10 February 1947 | | The Treaty of Paris with Italy was a peace treaty signed between Italy and the Allied nations following the Second World War. The Treaty stipulated that Italy was to make war reparations to specific Allied nations, and indicated several territorial changes that included the transfer of former Italian territories as well as the renunciation of claims to other territories. The treaty also restricted the size of Italy’s armed forces and the manufacture of certain ammunition. | Europe |
| Saxon Wars | | 8th, 9th | 772 | 804 | The Saxon Wars were a series of conflicts arising out of efforts by the Carolingian Empire (under Charles the Great) to conquer and claim Saxony. Charles sought to convert Saxony to Christianity and recruited Anglo-Saxon missionaries from England to help achieve this alongside his campaigns. The Saxon rebellions sought to defend their native religions, led by Widukind, who ultimately converted and was baptized in 785, concluding much of the conflict – although revolts continued until 804. | Europe |
| Roman Conquest of Britain | | 1st | 43 AD | 84 AD | The Roman Conquest of Britain was a conflict between the Roman Empire, led by Emperor Claudius, and resistance by Celtic Britons. Contact and trade with the Roman Empire had increased before the invasion, and Claudius invaded under the pretext of restoring exiled king Verica. However, his motivation for the Conquest lay partly in seeking to secure his imperial leadership following the murder of his nephew Gaius in AD 41 and the promise of natural resources. | Europe |
| Norman Conquest | | 11th | 1066 | 1071 | The Norman Conquest was the invasion and occupation of present-day England by William, Duke of Normandy. William sought to assert a claim to the English throne based on his relationship with Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, who had previously been exiled in Normandy. Edward was succeeded by Harold II, who led English forces against William’s invasion, culminating in the Battle of Hastings. Following Harold’s death and defeat at Hastings, William became king. | Europe |
| Saxon Rebellion | Saxon Uprising | 11th | 1073 | 1075 | The Saxon Rebellion, also known as the Saxon Uprising, was a conflict between the Holy Roman Empire, under Henry IV, and rebel Saxons. Saxon nobility advanced upon Henry IV at the Imperial Palace of Goslar in June 1073 to discuss allegations of Henry’s abuse of power, but Henry refused them an audience. These allegations and the desire for a ruler who was easier for the Saxon nobility to influence motivated the Saxons to displace Henry as king, and Henry sought to defend his claim to the throne. | Europe |
| First Scottish War of Independence | | 13th, 14th | 1296 | 1328 | The First War of Scottish Independence occurred between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England. It began with the English invasions of Scotland, following the discovery by English King Edward of the ‘Auld Alliance’ - a Franco-Scottish pact promising Scotland’s support of France, in the event of an English invasion. The Scottish fought to retain the independence of Scotland, and the war ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, which recognised Scotland’s independence under Robert the Bruce. | Europe |
| Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton | | 14th | 17 March 1328 | | The Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton provided peace terms between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England following the First War of Scottish Independence. It recognised Scotland’s independence, the rightful claim of King Robert the Bruce and his heirs to the Scottish throne. It also established a border between Scotland and England. | Europe |
| Second War of Scottish Independence | | 14th | 1332 | 1357 | The Second War of Scottish Independence was a conflict between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England. The conflict was provoked by a competing claim to the Scottish throne by Edward Balliol, supported by King Edward III of England. With English support, Balliol invaded Scotland by sea, continuing to besiege various towns. Fighting continued on and off for many years until Balliol relinquished his claim to the Scottish throne in January 1356, and the war concluded with the Treaty of Berwick. | Europe |
| Treaty of Berwick | | 14th | 1357 | | The Treaty of Berwick was an agreement between the Kingdoms of England and Scotland following the Second Scottish War of Independence. The treaty stipulated that the English would release King David II, the rightful king of Scotland, in exchange for a ransom. Heavy taxation was imposed on the country to cover the ransom, which, combined with the cost of wars and the impact of the Black Death, meant the Scottish economy was suffering. | Europe |
| Byzantine Civil War | | 13th | 1321 | 1328 | The Byzantine Civil War was a conflict over control of the Byzantine Empire, fought between the existing emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos and his grandson Andronikos III Palaiologos. Andronikos III leveraged discontent with his grandfather’s rule and fighting, resulting in an early peace agreement in 1321 that recognised Andronikos III as co-emperor. A new conflict later emerged between the co-emperors. Andronikos III captured Constantinople, and Andronikos II abdicated. | Europe |
| Troubles | | 20th | 1968 | 1998 | The Troubles describes a period of conflict between Northern Ireland and England. The causes of the conflict are complex but principally concerned a split between Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists; the latter sought an independent Ireland governed outside of British control. Fighting occurred between nationalist and unionist paramilitary forces; the British provided counter-insurgency and often violent repression of nationalist sentiment (as in Bloody Sunday, 1972). | Europe |
| Good Friday Agreement | Belfast Agreement | 20th | 10 April 1998 | | The Good Friday Agreement, also known as the Belfast Agreement, was signed between the governments of the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and political parties in Northern Ireland. The agreement set out the terms of peace between unionists and nationalists in Northern Ireland and is generally considered to mark the formal end of the Troubles. The agreement laid out a framework for power-sharing in Northern Ireland and devolved certain powers from the United Kingdom Parliament to a new political assembly in Belfast. | Europe |
| Revolt of Silken Thomas | Kildare Rebellion | 16th | 1534 | 1535 | The Revolt of Silken Thomas, also known as the Kildare Rebellion, was a conflict between Irish forces, led by Thomas Fitzgerald, and the forces of King Henry VIII, who was Lord of Ireland. Fitzgerald publicly renounced his allegiance to the king on 11 June 1534, leveraging concerns that the English Reformation would be imported to and imposed upon Ireland. In response, King Henry VIII sought to consolidate power in Ireland, fearing that Fitzgerald’s success would make Ireland vulnerable to French conquest. | Europe |
| Dacke War | | 16th | 1542 | 1543 | The Dacke War was an uprising by Swedish peasants led by Nils Dacke, emerging out of dissatisfaction with Swedish King Gustav Vasa’s policies around tax collection and the promotion of Lutheranism. The King ordered soldiers to fight the peasant army, and the Swedish government halted all supplies to territories reached by Dacke and his army. The Dacke-led rebels were finally defeated, and the uprising was quelled. | Europe |
| First Desmond Rebellion | | 16th | 1569 | 1573 | The First Desmond Rebellion was an uprising in Munster in Ireland between the FitzGerald Dynasty and its allies against the English government and Crown. It emerged out of concern around the latter’s growing power, especially regarding the Crown intervening in private Irish wars. Seeking to recover the lost prestige of the FitzGerald Dynasty in the Kingdom of Ireland, James Fitzmaurice launched a rebellion against the presence of the British in the south of Ireland. The English finally crushed the rebellion. | Europe |
| First Tarnovo Uprising | | 16th | 1598 | 1598 | The First Tarnovo Uprising was the rebellion of Bulgarian forces against Ottoman imperial rule. Religious leaders, Bulgarian nobility and local merchants organised the uprising, with support and allyship from rulers in present-day Romania and the Habsburg monarchy. The latter of which conflicted with the Ottomans. The rebellion was quickly and brutally vanquished, and around 16,000 Bulgarians subsequently fled Ottoman-ruled regions to establish Bulgarian communities in present-day Romania. | Europe |
| Second Tarnovo Uprising | | 17th | 1686 | 1686 | The Second Tarnovo Uprising was the rebellion of Bulgarian forces against Ottoman imperial rule. Bulgarian noble Rostislav Stratimirovic built an allyship with Russia and was declared Prince of Bulgaria. However, Ottoman authorities quickly and brutally suppressed the rebels. Due to the scarcity of sources, some historians have suggested the uprising is mythical, circulated by Russia to serve its political interests and anti-Ottoman position. | Europe |
| Peace of Prague | Imperial-Saxon Treaty | 17th | 1635 | | The Peace of Prague, also known as the Imperial-Saxon Treaty, provided the terms of peace between Saxony and the Holy Roman Empire, effectively ending Saxony’s participation in the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty is perceived as ending the religious underpinnings of the Thirty Years’ War, which continued as a conflict of foreign powers. The treaty prohibited formal alliances between states within the Holy Roman Empire, requiring their armies to be subsumed into the Imperial Army. | Europe |
| First Swedish War on Bremen | | 17th | 1654 | 1654 | The First Swedish War on Bremen was a conflict between the Swedish Empire and the town of Bremen over the town’s imperial rulership. Sweden claimed Bremen was part of its Bremen-Verden dominion, while Bremen claimed to be part of the Holy Roman Empire. The war involved Swedish occupation but no major military confrontation; the town pledged allegiance to Swedish King Charles X Gustav, and both sides signed the Treaty of Stade. | Europe |
| Treaty of Stade | First Stade Recess | 17th | 1654 | | The Treaty of Stade, sometimes known as the First Stade Recess, provided the terms of peace between the Swedish Empire and the town of Bremen following the First Swedish War on Bremen. The treaty stated that Bremen would make territorial concessions to the Swedish Empire, pledge allegiance to King Charles X Gustav and observe Swedish imperial foreign policy. | Europe |
| Second Swedish War on Bremen | | 17th | 1666 | 1666 | The Second Swedish War on Bremen occurred when the town of Bremen refused to pledge allegiance to Swedish King Chares X Gustav’s successor, Charles XI. By the summer of 1666, all of Bremen’s territories (bar the city itself) were occupied by Swedish troops. Sweden faced hesitation from its allies, especially France, who saw Bremen as a state of the Holy Roman Empire. Bremen gained allies from anti-Swedish factions such as the Dutch Republic, Denmark and the Electorate of Cologne. | Europe |
| Treaty of Habenhausen | Peace of Habenhausen | 17th | 15 November 1666 | | The Treaty of Habenhausen, also known as the Peace of Habenhausen, was a peace agreement between the Swedish Empire and the city of Bremen following the Swedish wars on Bremen. With the treaty, Bremen reserved the right to obey the Holy Roman Emperor while agreeing not to declare its Imperial immediacy in public documents before the year 1700. It also agreed to pay taxes to both the Swedish Crown and the Holy Roman Emperor. | Europe |
| Irish Confederate Wars | Eleven Years’ War | 17th | 1641 | Date contested | The Irish Confederate Wars, also known as the Eleven Years’ Wars, was a conflict between Catholic Irish confederates and English Protestant forces. The war began with an uprising of Irish Catholics who agitated against anti-Catholic discrimination, the confiscation and colonization of Irish land by the English Crown (the ‘Irish Plantations’),and the subordination of Irish governance under the English Parliament. English forces repressed the rebellion, primarily through a massacre of Ulster Catholics. | Europe |
| First Ormonde Peace | | 17th | 1646 | | The First Ormonde Peace provided an agreement between Irish Catholics and the English Crown following the Irish Confederate Wars. Under the peace, the Irish army would pledge to fight for the English Crown in return for a limited tolerance of Irish Catholicism. This, however, provoked a civil war in Catholic Ireland between the Moderate and Clerical factions of the Irish Confederacy. | Europe |
| Second Ormonde Peace | | 17th | 17 January 1649 | | The Second Ormonde Peace was a peace treaty signed by the leader of the Irish Royalists, the Marquess of Ormonde, and the Irish Confederates. In theory, it allowed for more religious freedom amongst Irish Catholics, but in practice demarcated Irish Catholicism as a tolerated group rather than a recognised organised religion. | Europe |
| Polish–Cossack–Tatar War | | 17th | 1666 | 1671 | The Polish–Cossack–Tatar War was a conflict between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire over control of Ukraine. The Cossack Hetmanate (a Cossack state in present-day central Ukraine) allied with the Ottoman Empire and Tatars to take control of Ukraine. The war preluded the Polish–Ottoman War. | Europe |
| First Kuruc Uprising | | 17th | 1672 | 1672 | The First Kuruc Uprising was a rebellion by anti-Habsburg insurgents, responding to religious and political persecution under Habsburg rule in the Kingdom of Hungary. The rebels comprised Protestants (who opposed the Habsburg’s Counter-Reformation efforts),nobles whose power was threatened by the Habsburg Court, and soldiers whose castles had been sacked by Habsburg generals. Hungarian persecution under the Habsburgs intensified, amplifying insurgents’ anti-Habsburg sentiment. | Europe |
| Rákóczi’s War of Independence | Rákóczi’s Uprising | 18th | 1703 | 1711 | Rákóczi’s War of Independence, also known as the Rákóczi Revolt, was a rebellion led by Hungarian nobles and progressives to overthrow the Habsburg rule in Hungary. The nobility positioned themselves against the Habsburgs when land previously confiscated from them by the Ottoman Empire would be returned only under the condition that 10% of the land’s worth be paid to the Habsburgs. Peasants joined the anti-Habsburg cause because of the hardships inflicted on them during years of war. | Europe |
| Treaty of Szatmár | Peace of Szatmár | 18th | 1711 | | The Treaty of Szatmár, also known as the Peace of Szatmár, provided the terms of peace between the House of Habsburg and the Hungarian rebels, formally ending The Rákóczi's War of Independence. According to the treaty, Charles I (as Habsburg Emperor) agreed to maintain the integrity of estates in Hungary and present-day Romania. Rebels were granted amnesty for their involvement in the war. | Europe |
| Franco-Dutch War | Dutch War | 17th | 1672 | 1678 | The Franco-Dutch War, also known as the Dutch War, was a conflict between France and the Dutch Republic (and their respective allies) over control of the Netherlands, which was under Dutch control. Louis XIV of France had spent years trying to weaken Dutch power through high tariffs and secret diplomacy and ultimately invaded the Dutch Republic with English naval support. However, attempts at consolidating French control were slowly thwarted, and the French were driven out of the Republic. | Europe |
| Treaty of Nijmegen | Peace of Nijmegen | 17th | 1678 | | The Treaty of Nijmegen, also known as the Peace of Nijmegen, was one of a series of Nijmegen treaties that provided terms of peace between France and its enemies following the Franco-Dutch War. The Treaty of Nijmegen, signed on 10 August 1678 between France and the Dutch Republic, is considered the most significant of the treaties. France gained advantages by arranging terms with each of its enemies separately. | Europe |
| Treaty of Fontainebleau | | 17th | 1679 | | The Treaty of Fontainebleau was one of a series of Nijmegen treaties that provided an agreement between France and its enemies following the Franco-Dutch War. Signed on 23 August and later on 2 September 1679, the treaty was between Denmark-Norway, France and the Swedish Empire. | Europe |
| Peace of Lund | | 17th | 1679 | | The Peace of Lund provided the terms of peace between Denmark–Norway and the Swedish Empire, following the Scanian War. Under the terms of the treaty, various Danish-occupied territories were to be returned to Sweden, a defence alliance was formed between the countries, and secret agreements of a 10-year mutual assistance alliance were made. | Europe |
| Treaty of the Pyrenees | | 17th | 7 November 1659 | | The Treaty of the Pyrenees provided the terms of peace between France and Spain, ending the Franco-Spanish War. Under the terms of the Treaty, France gained territories, including those villages north of the new Pyrenees border with Spain, in exchange for which France agreed to cut allegiances with the Portuguese and to renounce claims to Barcelona. Spain agreed to recognise the gains made by France in the Treaty of Westphalia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle | Treaty of Aachen | 17th | 2 May 1688 | | The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, also known as the Treaty of Aachen, was a peace treaty between France and Spain following the War of Devolution. The War of Devolution emerged from claims made by French King Louis XIV to territories he believed had passed to him through his marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain. Under the terms of the treaty, France returned various regions to Spain and retained others. | Europe |
| Truce of Ratisbon | Truce of Regensburg | 17th | 15 August 1684 | 1688 | The Treaty of Ratisborn, also known as the Truce of Regensburg, was a treaty between France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire following the War of the Reunions. France retained Luxembourg and Strasbourg and returned Kortrijk and Diksmuide to Spain. For France, the treaty protected territorial conquest for the duration of the truce; for France’s opponents, the treaty acted to consolidate political alliances. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Venetian War | Second Morean War | 18th | 1714 | 1718 | The Ottoman–Venetian War, also known as the Second Morean War, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice over control of territories the Ottoman Empire had previously had to concede. Venice sought to protect these territories as they formed part of the Venetian trade routes and sea power; the Ottoman Empire sought to reclaim these territories to consolidate their plan of conquering Europe. | Europe |
| Austro–Turkish War | | 18th | 1716 | 1718 | The Austro-Turkish War was a conflict between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire, emerging partly out of Ottoman dissatisfaction with the terms of the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz. Following the Ottoman conquest of Morea in the Ottoman-Venetian War and as guarantor of the Treaty of Karlowitz, Austria declared war on the Ottomans in April 1716. | Europe |
| Treaty of Passarowitz | Treaty of Požarevac | 18th | 21 July 1718 | | The Treaty of Passarowitz, also known as the Treaty of Požarevac, provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg monarchy, and the Republic of Venice. Under the terms of the treaty, the Ottomans ceded several territories to the Habsburg monarchy, including Belgrade and regions of present-day Bosnia, Serbia, Romania and Hungary. | Europe |
| Greek War of Independence | Greek Revolution | 19th | 1821 | 1832 | The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Greek revolutionaries, supported by the empires of Britain, France, and Russia. It was the result of growing Greek nationalism and a weakening Ottoman Empire, which had ruled Greece since the 15th century. The involvement of other European powers made a significant difference in helping Greece to become a sovereign power. | Europe |
| Bosnian Uprising | Great Bosnian Uprising | 19th | 1831 | Date and year unknown | The Bosnian Uprising, also known as the Great Bosnian Uprising, was a conflict between Bosnian rebels and the Ottoman Empire. The rebellion resulted from the Ottoman Empire’s abolition of the Janissaries warrior class of Balkan soldiers and noblemen and the transfer of certain Bosnian territories to Serbia under the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople. Bosnia subsequently declared independence and war on the Ottomans. | Europe |
| Treaty of Utrecht | Peace of Utrecht | 18th | 11 April 1713 | | The Treaty of Utrecht, or Peace of Utrecht, was a series of treaties that concluded the Spanish War of Succession. Several European states were included in the negotiations, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic. The first treaty signed at Utrecht was between France and Portugal on 7 November, followed by the truce between France and Savoy on 14 March 1714. A number of other treaties came out of the congress of Utrecht. | Europe |
| Truce of Nice | | 16th | 1538 | | The Truce of Nice was a ten-year truce between France and the Holy Roman Empire. Under the terms of the treaty, Turin remained under French control. Due to the intense personal dislike between King Francis I of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, mediator Pope Paul III was required to negotiate from room to room, so the two men did not meet. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zurich | | 19th | 10 November 1859 | | The Treaty of Zurich was the culmination of three separate treaties that provided the terms of peace between the Austrian and French Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, concluding the Second Italian War of Independence, also known as the Sardinian War. The French-Austrian Treaty and French-Sardinian Treaty ceded certain territories, whilst the third treaty signed by all parties agreed to peace between Austria and Sardinia. | Europe |
| Shkodër Uprising | | 19th | 1833 | 1833 | The Shkodër Uprising was a rebellion by Albanians from Shkodër in response to Ottoman imperial administrative policies relating to taxes and imperial privileges. The Albanian rebels requested a new Turkish governor, and in the process of negotiations in Istanbul, the city of Shkodër was besieged by Ottoman forces. By December 1833, concerned by the strength of Albanian rebels and parallel, emerging uprisings in the south of Albania, the Ottomans agreed to replace the governor. | Europe |
| Uprising of Dervish Cara | Albanian Revolt of 1844 | 19th | 1843 | 1844 | The Uprising of Dervish Cara, also known as the Albanian Revolt of 1843-1844, was a conflict between Albanian rebels and the Ottoman imperial army. The uprising emerged from agitation against modernisation policies known as the Tanzimat reforms. The reform modified government administration and military organisation and, in doing so, threatened the existing Albanian feudal military order and the regional power wielded by local leaders. | Europe |
| Kraków Uprising | Insurrection of 1846 | 19th | 1846 | 1846 | The Kraków Uprising, also known as the Insurrection of 1846, was a conflict between Polish rebels and the imperial powers that had orchestrated the Polish-Lithuanian partitions, especially the Austrian Empire. The uprising was triggered by the political writings and French utopian socialism adopted by Poles exiled from the ‘Stolen Lands’, who advocated for the emancipation of the Polish peasantry and an independent sovereign Poland. Although unsuccessful, Karl Marx praised the rebellion. | Europe |
| Hungarian Revolution | Hungarian War of Independence | 19th | 1848 | 1849 | The Hungarian Revolution, also known as the Hungarian War of Independence, was a conflict between Hungarian insurgents against the Habsburg Monarchy. The causes of the uprising were complex and various, subtly changing across the rebelling reasons, closely linked to other rebellions in Habsburg territories. However, the primary grievances were a crashing economy and poverty following the Napoleonic Wars, unconstitutional parliamentary reform, and calls for Hungarian independence. | Europe |
| Epirus Revolt | | 19th | 1854 | 1854 | The Epirus Revolt was a conflict between Epirote Greek rebels and the Ottoman Empire. The Revolt had been seen as an opportunistic effort of Greek inhabitants to claim land that did not fall within the boundaries of independent Greece but was inhabited by Greek people, whilst the Ottoman forces were preoccupied with the Crimean War. Prominent Greek military officials joined the cause, but the Revolt was suppressed by Ottoman, British and French forces. | Europe |
| Armistice of Villafranca | Treaty of Villafranca | 19th | 1859 | 1859 | The Armistice of Villafranca, also known as the Treaty of Villafranca di Verona, was an agreement between France and Austria. It concluded the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence. Austria ceded most of Lombardy to France, which returned it to Sardinia, and rulers in Parma, Modena and Tuscany reclaimed their thrones. The terms of the treaty were further established in the 1859 Treaty of Zurich. | Europe |
| Treaty of Athens | | 20th | 14 November 1913 | | The Treaty of Athens was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Greece following the Balkan Wars. The Ottoman Empire ceded contested territories to Greece, recognised Greek sovereignty over others, and minority rights were granted to Turkish people living in newly-conquered Greek regions. | Europe |
| Treaty of Limits | | 19th | 12 January 1828 | 1846 | The Treaty of Limits was a treaty signed by the United States of America and Mexico on 12 January 1828. The treaty confirmed the borders of the two nations, which were initially established in the Treaty of Adams-Onis of 1819 between Spain and the United States of America. The treaty was amended twice in the 1830s and subsequently replaced in 1846 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the Mexican-American War, which established a new border. | North America |
| Columbine Mine Massacre | | 20th | 21 November 1927 | 21 November 1927 | The Columbine Mine Massacre occurred on 21 November 1927 in Serene, Colorado. A large crowd, between 200 and 600 people, were on strike in protest of poor working conditions for the miners at the Columbine mine. A fight broke out between the striking coal miners and the Colorado state militia, who were allied with the newly constituted Colorado State Police. Law enforcement fired into the crowd, resulting in the death of six striking miners and the wounding of 20 others. | North America |
| Harlan County War | Bloody Harlan | 20th | 1931 | 1939 | The Harlan County War, also known as Bloody Harlan, was a series of armed conflicts between striking coal union members against coal companies throughout Harlan County, Kentucky. Coal miners were primarily striking over poor and unsafe working conditions and low wages. Eventually, in 1939, Harlan coal companies signed on with the United Mine Workers Union (UMWA). | North America |
| Pemmican War | | 19th | 1812 | 1821 | The Pemmican War was a series of armed conflicts between Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company across present-day Canadian territory. It took place following the establishment of the Red River Colony in 1812 by Lord Selkirk. In mid-winter 1814, due to famine, the Red River Colony issued the Pemmican Proclamation to stop the export of pemmican to North West Company forts, retaining it for Hudson’s Bay Company settlers. The war eventually resulted in the two companies merging. | North America |
| Shiners’ War | | 19th | 1835 | 1845 | The Shiners’ War was a series of armed conflicts between French Canadians and Irish-Catholic immigrants in Bytown, present-day Ottawa, Canada. The war takes its name from the group of Irish men known as Shiners who attacked timber operations in the region. There were several attempts by citizens of Bytown to stop the violence, but eventually, in 1837, troops were deployed by the government. Skirmishes continued until 1845, only ending after the death of the Irish leader, Peter Aylen. | North America |
| McGowan’s War | | 19th | Autumn 1858 | January 1859 | McGowan’s War took place from the autumn of 1858 until January 1859 in Yale, British Columbia and was a bloodless conflict. The conflict was a clash between two opposing mining communities led by their magistrates, in the Fraser Canyon goldfields. British soldiers and sailors were deployed to bring order to the town as British Columbia was still under colonial rule. The conflict also involved campaigning to drive out the indigenous people of Fraser Canyon due to the increased mining activity. | North America |
| Pig War | | 19th | 15 June 1859 | October 1959 | The Pig War was an armed conflict between the United States of America and Great Britain over the British-US border in the San Juan Islands, located between Vancouver Island and the state of Washington where both states had a significant presence. The conflict began on 15 June 1959 when a pig belonging to a British employee of the Hudson’s Bay Company walked onto the farming land of an American settler, Lyman Cutler, who shot the pig. There was military support on both sides until October 1859. In 1872, the San Juan Islands fell under American control. | North America |
| Chilcotin Uprising | Bute Inlet Massacre | 19th | April 1864 | April 1864 | The Chilcotin Uprising, also known as the Bute Inlet Massacre, was a confrontation that took place in April 1864 between members of the Tsilhqot'in (Chilcotin) people and white workmen. After work on a road being built from Bute Inlet to the interior region of British Columbia had entered Chilcotin Indian territory without permission, Chilcotin warriors retaliated, killing 14 road workers. Chilcotin warriors and chiefs were subsequently imprisoned and put on trial. In 2014, the British Columbia government exonerated the Chilcotin leaders. | North America |
| Fenian Raids | | 19th | April 1866 | October 1871 | The Fenian Raids were a series of armed attacks carried out by an Irish republican organisation called the Fenian Brotherhood. Based in the United States of America, the Fenian Brotherhood attacked military fortifications, customs posts, and other infrastructures in Canada. The attacks began in the Spring of 1866 and ended in October 1871, when the Fenians learned that the U.S. Army had arrested John O’Neill, a key figure in the Fenian Brotherhood organisation. The raids stemmed from the aim to invade Canada, thus exchanging it with Great Britain for Irish independence. With the arrest of O’Neill in 1871, this plan never came to fruition. | North America |
| Cypress Hills Massacre | | 19th | 1 June 1873 | 1 June 1873 | The Cypress Hills Massacre took place on 1 June 1873 in the Cypress Hills region of the North-West Territories of Canada, now known as Saskatchewan. A group of American bison and wolf hunters claimed that a horse had been stolen by the Assiniboine people, and a fight ensued. Approximately 20 Assiniboine Native Americans died. The massacre is credited by many as prompting the United States government’s decision to create the North-West Mounted Police to help patrol the region. | North America |
| Red River Rebellion | Red River Resistance | 19th | 1869 | 1870 | The Red River Rebellion, also known as the Red River Resistance, took place from 1869 to 1870 in the Red River Colony. The uprising took place as a response to the transfer of the vast territory of Rupert’s Land to the new Dominion of Canada. The farmers and hunters of the colony, many of them Métis, occupied a corner of the territory and feared for their culture and land rights. The rebellion led to the formation of the province of Manitoba. | North America |
| Lower Canada Rebellion | Patriots’ War | 19th | November 1837 | November 1838 | The Lower Canada Rebellion, also known as the Patriots’ War, began in November 1837 between the Patriots (French-Canadian nationalists) and British colonial forces in Canada. In response to the rebellion, British forces invoked emergency legislation and martial law. The rebellion also influenced the Upper Canada Rebellion, which started a month later, and both were ongoing for a year. The Lower and Upper Canada Rebellions led to a total of 325 deaths, all of whom were Patriots except 27 British soldiers. | North America |
| Upper Canada Rebellion | | 19th | December 1837 | December 1838 | The Upper Canada Rebellion began in December 1837, following the Lower Canada Rebellion that had started a month earlier. The rebellion was led by William Lyon Mackenzie, who challenged the land grants that favoured settlers from Britain. After a few attempts to fight the British colonial forces, most rebels fled to the United States. The Lower and Upper Canada Rebellions led to a total of 325 deaths. Some died in battle, others were rebels captured and executed by the government. A few years after the rebellion, both colonies were united as the Province of Canada in 1841. | North America |
| United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland | | 19th | 24 April 1800 | 24 April 1800 | The United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland was a mutiny organised by Irish soldiers in the British army garrison based in St. John’s, Newfoundland. With a plot to take over the town and aspirations to control the colony, the Irish soldiers deserted their duties on 24 April 1800. The soldiers were seen deserting their posts, and the majority were captured, resulting in eight men being hanged and several being imprisoned. | North America |
| Battle of Ballantyne Pier | | 20th | 18 June 1935 | 18 June 1935 | The Battle of Ballantyne Pier took place on 18 June 1935 when approximately 1,000 striking dockers and longshoremen marched to the entrance of Ballantyne Pier in Vancouver, British Columbia. Striking workers were not allowed entry to the pier to discuss working conditions and wages, and many police were called to the scene. The police attacked the protestors, resulting in 28 men being hospitalised and 24 arrests. Despite the fatalities, the strike lasted until December 1935. | North America |
| Battle of Boca Teacapan | | 19th | 17 June 1870 | 17 June 1870 | The Battle of Boca Teacapan took place on 17 June 1870 as a result of a Mexican pirate ship attacking other ships in the Pacific Ocean. The United States Navy pursued the ship, which sparked the battle. Eight American sailors were wounded, while the casualties of the pirates are unknown. | North America |
| Sheep Wars | Sheep and Cattle War | 19th, 20th | circa 1870 | 1920 | The Sheep Wars, also known as the Sheep and Cattle War, were a series of armed conflicts between cattlemen and sheepherders throughout Texas and the western United States over grazing lands. Approximately 120 skirmishes occurred, and it is estimated that 54 men were killed and some 50,000 to 100,000 sheep were slaughtered. | North America |
| Sheepeater Indian War | | 19th | 1879 | 1879 | The Sheepeater Indian War took place over several months in 1879 between Western Shoshone and Bannock Native Americans, known as Sheepeaters due to their proficiency in hunting Rocky Mountain sheep, and the United States Army. Numerous murders of ranchers and miners were suspected to have been committed by the so-called Sheepeaters. Consequently, the First Cavalry was sent in search of the native band in central Idaho. After several skirmishes, the Shoshone surrendered in late September 1879. | North America |
| Acadian Civil War | | 17th | 1640 | 1645 | The Acadian Civil War was a series of armed conflicts fought between two competing governors of Acadia, Charles de Sainte-Étienne de La Tour and Charles de Menou d’Aulnay, whose administrations overlapped. In April 1645, d’Aulnay got word that La Tour had left his fort to go to Boston. He sailed across the Bay of Fundy and lay siege. La Tour’s wife Françoise-Marie resisted, but after bombardments, she was forced to watch as her men were strangled to death. She subsequently died. La Tour did not hear what had happened until late June. Later, in 1650, d’Aulnay died when his canoe overturned, and La Tour went to France to restore his authority in Acadia. He also married d’Aulnay’s widow and adopted his eight children. | North America |
| Two Row Wampum Treaty | Gaswéñdah Treaty | 17th | 1613 | | The Two Row Wampum Treaty, also known as the Gaswéñdah Treaty, is a treaty between the Dutch and the Iroquois and Mohawk Native American peoples. It is one of the oldest treaties between a North American indigenous people and European immigrants. The treaty was signed in 1613 and agreed upon a mutual commitment to peace. | North America |
| Great Peace of Montreal Treaty | | 18th | 4 August 1701 | | The Great Peace of Montreal was a peace treaty between France and the First Nations. It was signed on 4 August 1701 by the delegates of the First Nations and Louis-Hector de Calliere, who signed on behalf of King Louis XIV of France. The treaty ended the wars between the native peoples, consolidated hunting territories, and slowed British expansion in Canada. The treaty allowed First Nations people to trade freely in Montreal and the Quebec province. | North America |
| Rush-Bagot Treaty | Rush-Bagot Pact | 19th | April 1817 | | The Rush-Bagot Treaty, also known as the Rush-Bagot Pact, was signed in April 1817 by Richard Rush, acting US Secretary of State, and Charles Bagot, British minister to the US. The treaty agreed on limiting the number of naval forces on the Great Lakes, in light of the War of 1812. The treaty was ratified in 1818 and remains in force to this day. | North America |
| Falklands War | Malvinas War | 20th | 2 April 1982 | 14 June 1982 | The Falklands War, also known as the Malvinas War, was a conflict between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas). Argentina alleged that the islands were discovered by Spain in 1520, and when it became a republic, it claimed sovereignty over the islands, which it exercised from 1820 to 1833. But the United Kingdom held that the islands were discovered by an English sailor in 1592, and that they had exercised sovereignty since 1833 when it removed the Argentine governor and took control of the islands. The war ended with the victory of the United Kingdom. | South America |
| War of the Pacific | Saltpeter War | 19th | 5 April 1879 | 20 October 1883 | The War of the Pacific, also known as the Saltpeter War, was a conflict between Chile and allies Bolivia and Peru over the saltpetre-rich territories of Antofagasta and Atacama. Chile claimed that Bolivia had violated the boundary treaty of 1874 by imposing a new tax on the Chilean company. Bolivia claimed that the imposition of taxes was subject to the jurisdiction of the Bolivian courts. Chile also declared war on Peru following its refusal to remain neutral. It ended with Chilean victory. Arica, which was part of Peru, passed into the jurisdiction of Chile, and Bolivia lost its access to the sea. | South America |
| Treaty of Defensive Alliance | Peru-Bolivia Secret Pact | 19th | 6 February 1873 | | The Treaty of Defensive Alliance, also known as the Peru-Bolivia Secret Pact, sought to guarantee the independence of both countries and create a defence pact in case of conflict with other countries. It also sought to resolve disputes through arbitration to avoid war. Peru and Bolivia sought the accession of Argentina to the treaty, but the Argentinian congress did not approve it. Later, when they did want to join, Peru did not permit it. The treaty was created at the request of Bolivia, which had a border dispute with Chile. Both countries agreed to keep the treaty secret. | South America |
| Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 | | 20th | 20 October 1904 | | The Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 sought to end the Pacific War. With the signing of the treaty, Bolivia ceded all the territories of Antofagasta to Chile, losing its access to the sea. Chile agreed to build a railway between Arica and La Paz, granting Bolivia the right of transit to the Pacific ports. In 2018, Bolivia asked the International Court of Justice to be able to negotiate this treaty with Chile to recover its access to the sea. The government of Chile did not agree, since the 1904 treaty granted these territories in perpetuity. | South America |
| Treaty of Ancón | | 19th | 20 October 1883 | | The Ancón Treaty was a peace treaty signed between Peru and Chile in Ancón, near Lima. The treaty formally ended the Pacific War and ceded the Tarapacá province and the port cities of Tacna and Arica to Chile. This meant that Bolivia lost its Pacific coastline. While the treaty set out that Arica and Tacna were to continue under Chilean administration for 10 years, after which a plebiscite would determine which country the inhabitants wanted to belong to, the referendum never took place. Chile was to allocate 50% of the profits from the sale of guano from already known deposits to the payment of Peruvian debt. | South America |
| Treatry of Lima | | 20th | 3 June 1929 | | The Treaty of Lima sought to end the controversy over the sovereignty of the cities of Tacna and Arica. It was agreed that Tacna would become Peruvian territory, and Arica Chilean. Chile agreed to pay $6 million in compensation. The border was to be set by a mixed commission made up of members appointed by both countries. In case of disagreement, the vote of the United States would intervene, whose decision would be final. The mixed commission completed its delimitation work in 1930, and in 1999 both countries signed an act to execute the pending clauses. | South America |
| Chaco War | War of Thirst | 20th | 9 September 1932 | 15 July 1935 | The Chaco War, sometimes called the War of Thirst, was a conflict between Paraguay and Bolivia over the sovereignty of the Chaco Boreal wilderness region, which was thought to have large oil reserves. The war followed peaceful attempts to delimit the area. In the end, Paraguay obtained sovereignty over most of the disputed territory. Almost 90,000 people died in the conflict. | South America |
| Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Boundaries | | 20th | 21 July 1938 | | The Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Boundaries was signed in Buenos Aires on 21 July 1938. The treaty sought to put an end to the Chaco War and avoid future conflicts between the two countries, taking into account their historical and fraternal ties. The treaty recognised the sovereignty of Paraguay and gave it approximately 75% of the disputed area. The treaty established the Mixed Boundary Demarcation Commission, which also involved the guarantors Argentina, Brazil, Chile, the United States, Peru, and Uruguay. The demarcation was finally completed in 2007, and in 2009, the presidents of Bolivia and Paraguay met in Argentina to sign the act of compliance. | South America |
| War of the Cauca | | 19th | 7 February 1832 | 8 December 1832 | The War of the Cauca, not to be confused with the later Ecuadorian-Colombian War of 1862, was a conflict that took place in 1832 between New Granada and Ecuador over the domain of the provinces of Pasto, Popayán, and Buenaventura. Ecuador held that these provinces belonged to it since they were part of the Castilian Province of Quito during Spanish colonisation. It ended with the Treaty of Pasto and the victory of New Granada. | South America |
| Treaty of Pasto | | 20th | 8 December 1932 | | The Treaty of Pasto was a peace and boundary treaty between Ecuador and New Granada (present-day Colombia) following the War of the Cauca of 1832. It sought to restore relations between the two countries, place the border on the Carchi River, and create an assembly of representatives of the three states that emerged after the dissolution of Gran Colombia (Ecuador, Venezuela, and New Granada). Pasto, Popayan, and Buenaventura were accepted as part of New Granada. While the treaty recognised mutual sovereignty, it was not until 1939 that Ecuador raised the status of its diplomatic mission in Columbia to an official Embassy. Colombia followed suit in 1940. | South America |
| Acre War | Acrean Revolution | 19th, 20th | 14 July 1899 | 17 November 1903 | The Acre War, also known in Brazil as the Acrean Revolution, was a conflict between Bolivia and Brazil over the sovereignty of the territories near the Purús and Acre rivers. Bolivia fought to maintain its sovereignty of those lands, and to be able to install a customs office where to receive payment for the extraction of rubber. Brazil claimed that Bolivia wanted to hand over these lands to a United States company, lands inhabited by Brazilians who had previously exported rubber. It ended with Bolivia ceding the territory of Acre to Brazil, in exchange for financial compensation. | South America |
| Treaty of Ayacucho | | 19th | 27 March 1867 | | The Treaty of Ayacucho was a boundary, navigation, trade, and extradition treaty signed between the Brazilian Empire and Bolivia. The treaty established peace between the countries and provided for a review of their boundaries. It gave Bolivia power over the Acre area, a state in present-day Brazil, and freedom to navigate the Madeira River. Narrowing Bolivia’s borders, the treaty expanded Brazil’s territory. The Brazilian Empire expanded its borders and gained the territory of Alto Madeira. It also re-established their commercial relationship. The treaty was dissolved with the Acre Revolution. | South America |
| Treaty of Petrópolis | | 20th | 17 November 1903 | | The Petrópolis Treaty sought to end the Acre War and to establish the border between Brazil and Bolivia. Bolivia ceded 191,000 square kilometres of its territory, adding the entire territory of Acre in the Amazon to Brazil. Brazil ceded 3,000 square kilometres to Bolivia and agreed to a payment of £2 million. The same treaty committed to the construction of a railway between the port of San Antonio on the Madera River and Guayaramerín in Mamoré, Brazil. The railway was completed in 1912 and cost $33 million and the lives of 3,600 Brazilian workers. The aim of the railway was to exploit rubber from both countries and to export it from the Port of Belem. | South America |
| Salomón-Lozano Treaty | Treaty of Limits and Free River Navigation | 20th | 24 March 1922 | | The Salomón-Lozano Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Limits and Free River Navigation, was signed between Colombia and Peru on 24 March 1922. It sought to establish a border between the two countries. Peru ceded the left bank of the Putumayo River and a strip of the Amazon River known as Trapecio de Leticia, or the Amazonian Trapeze, while Colombia ceded the San Miguel-Sucumbíos triangle, a territory that has been ceded by Ecuador in a previous treaty. Ecuador saw this as a betrayal. The president of Peru was widely criticized for signing this treaty. It was ratified by Colombia in 1925 and by Peru in 1927. | South America |
| Rio Protocol | Sacrifice Treaty | 20th | 29 January 1942 | | The Rio Protocol sought to end the Ecuadorian-Peruvian conflict and to re-establish the borders between them. It had as guarantors the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. According to the Peruvian government, this treaty was the beginning of new relations with Ecuador since it maintained the original border at the time of independence. For Ecuador, this treaty was signed due to political pressure from the guarantor countries causing it to lose part of its territory. Despite the treaty, the border was not completely delineated, which caused future disputes between the countries. | South America |
| Migratory Bird Treaty Act | | 20th | 1918 | 2004 | The Migratory Bird Treaty Act was signed in 1918 by the United States of America and Great Britain (on behalf of Canada). The treaty was established to prevent the poaching of migratory birds, which previously caused conflict among poachers and hunters due to the overhunting of certain species. After the treaty was ratified, it became a federal crime to harm birds in any way, including taking feathers or other parts. This treaty was reformed in 2004 to only include birds native to the United States and US territories. | North America |
| Lincoln County War | | 19th | 18 February 1878 | 18 February 1879 | The Lincoln County War was an armed conflict between opposing factions competing for dry goods and cattle in Lincoln County, New Mexico. The two factions were general store owners, led by J.J. Dolan and L.G. Murphy against ranchers, led by John Chisum and Alexander McSween. The murder of Englishman John Tunstall led more people to rally around Chisum and McSween, renamed as the Regulators. Several skirmishes between the factions lasted for a year between the 18th February 1878 and 18th February 1879. The most infamous figure from this conflict was William Bonney, known as Billy the Kid. | North America |
| Hatfield-McCoy Feud | Hatfield-McCoy Conflict | 19th | Early 1860s | Early 1890s | The Hatfield-McCoy Feud, also known as the Hatfield-McCoy Conflict, was an armed conflict between two rival families in the West Virginia-Kentucky region. Violent hostilities began in the 1860s and lasted until the 1890s, with discrepancies in the exact dates. It is believed that the main cause of the conflict was land disputes, and opposing loyalties during the American Civil War, however, the origins are not fully confirmed. Throughout the feud, more than 12 people from the two families were killed and approximately 10 were wounded. | North America |
| Homestead Strike | Homestead Riot | 19th | 6 July 1892 | 12 July 1892 | The Homestead Strike, also known as the Homestead Riot, was a violent conflict between the Carnegie Steel Company and many of its workers. Tensions grew over a labour dispute in the town of Homestead, Pennsylvania. In June and early July 1892, there were numerous wage cuts and workers were dismissed. The violence that ensued resulted in the death of three Pinkerton agents and seven workers. Workers eventually took control of the steel mill, only to be forced out by the National Guard, thus ending the strike and violence. | North America |
| Tulsa Race Massacre | Black Wall Street Massacre | 20th | 31 May 1921 | 1 June 1921 | The Tulsa Race Massacre, also known as the Black Wall Street massacre, took place in Tulsa, Oklahoma over multiple factors of tension between white and black residents of Tulsa’s Greenwood District. The massacre was a result of a white supremacist terrorist group looting and burning the properties of black residents. Martial law was declared, and the National Guard troops arrived in the region to control the violence. More than 800 people were treated for injuries and historians now believe approximately 300 people died as a result. | North America |
| Battle of Alcatraz | | 20th | 2 May 1946 | 4 May 1946 | The Battle of Alcatraz was an armed conflict between escaped inmates and the federal prison staff of the Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary. The conflict arose when convicts Bernard Coy and Joseph Cretzer broke out of their cells with several other inmates. During the escape attempt, the inmates seized firearms and several prison officers were taken hostage. Eventually, prison officers were aided by US Marines and police officers, resulting in the deaths of two correctional officers and three inmates. | North America |
| Battle of Athens | McMinn County War | 20th | 1 August 1946 | 2 August 1946 | The Battle of Athens, also known as the McMinn County War, was a rebellion led by the citizens of Athens and Etowah, Tennessee against the local government, who were accused of police brutality and political corruption. The tensions were borne out of the introduction of Paul Cantrell as sheriff of McMinn County in 1936. During his ten-year tenure, Cantrell engaged in electoral fraud and was responsible for several acts which intimidated voters and bolstered his political career. The uprising resulted in the McMinn County government being disbanded and replaced. | North America |
| Watts Riots | Watts Rebellion | 20th | 11 August 1965 | 16 August 1965 | The Watts Riots, also known as the Watts Rebellion, were a series of violent confrontations which took place in the deeply impoverished Watts neighbourhood of Los Angeles, between predominantly African American communities and the Los Angeles police force. The conflict began with the arrest of an African American man, Marquette Frye, by Lee W. Minikus, a white officer. Violence, looting, and rioting lasted for six days and resulted in 34 deaths and over a thousand injured. The Watts Riots is now considered the largest and costliest urban rebellion of the Civil Rights era. | North America |
| Mexican Revolution | | 20th | 1910 | 1920 | The Mexican Revolution consisted of several regional armed conflicts among different political factions in Mexico. The initial cause of the revolution began with the people’s rising discontent with the elitist politics and the decades-long regime of President Porfirio Diaz. The ten-year revolution was a long and bloody struggle amongst different political regimes with constantly shifting alliances. When the Mexican Constitution of 1917 was legitimised, large-scale conflicts decreased, and the revolution’s final years saw only minor skirmishes among opposing groups. | North America |
| Mexican War of Independence | | 19th | 16 September 1810 | 24 August 1821 | The Mexican War of Independence was an armed political conflict between New Spain (present-day Mexico) and the Spanish colonial government. Mexican-born Spaniards (criollo people),Mestizos and Amerindians wanted their independence from Spain and fought the local Spanish government for 11 years, resulting in a death toll of approximately half a million people. The war ended when the Treaty of Córdoba was signed on the 24th of August 1821, declaring New Spain as the Mexican Empire. | North America |
| Treaty of Córdoba | | 19th | 24 August 1821 | | The Treaty of Córdoba was signed on the 24th of August 1821 by representatives of Spain and newly independent Mexico. Although the treaty recognised Mexican independence from Spain and ended the Mexican War of Independence, it wouldn’t be until the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty in 1836 that Mexico would be recognised as a peaceful trade partner for Spain. | North America |
| Santa María–Calatrava Treaty | | 19th | 29 December 1836 | | The Santa María-Calavera Treaty was signed on the 29th of December 1836 by Mexico and Spain to acknowledge Mexican independence from the Spanish colonial government and to encourage peace and friendship between Mexico and Spain. This treaty consolidated the relationship between Mexico and Spain and ended the tensions between both nations that lingered from the Mexican War of Independence, which began in 1810. | North America |
| 1821 Treaty of Chicago | | 19th | 29 August 1821 | | The 1821 Treaty of Chicago was the first of two treaties signed by the United States of America and representatives of the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi (Council of Three Fires) Native American people. Similar to the Treaty of Detroit (1807),the treaty ceded approximately five million acres of land to the United States government. In doing so, many Native American people were forced to live on reservations throughout the state of Michigan. | North America |
| 1833 Treaty of Chicago | | 19th | 26 September 1833 | | The 1833 Treaty of Chicago was the second of two treaties signed by the United States of America and representatives of the Chippewa, Odawa, and Potowatomi Native American people. The treaty granted all land west of Lake Michigan to Lake Winnebago in modern-day Wisconsin to the United States government. In return, the treaty promised various cash payments and tracts of land west of the Mississippi River. | North America |
| Cristero War | La Cristiada | 20th | 1 August 1926 | 21 June 1929 | The Cristero War, also known as La Cristiada, was a conflict in north-western Mexico between the Cristeros (‘Soldiers of Christ’) and the Mexican army, supported by the United States of America. The conflict between the Catholic Church and the anti-clerical government in Mexico was borne out of the implementation of secularist and anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution, which limited the power of the church. In total, the death toll is estimated at 90,000 people. | North America |
| Chiapas Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1994 | late 2010s | The Chiapas Conflict was a series of armed uprisings and ensuing tensions between the Zapatista Army of National Liberation against the Mexican federal government, supported by the United States. Indigenous peoples and subsistence farmers in Chiapas, the poorest state in Mexico, joined forces with the Zapatista Army and took control of several towns to demand greater rights for Mexico's indigenous people. The conflict resulted in an armistice. | North America |
| Mexico-Guatemala Conflict | | 20th | 1958 (exact date debated) | 15 September 1959 | The Mexico-Guatemala Conflict was an armed conflict between Mexico and Guatemala which stemmed from a lack of clear legislation on fishing rights. This resulted in Mexican fishing boats being fired upon by the Guatemalan Air Force on suspicion of piracy and arms trafficking. The conflict ended in a ceasefire and the Guatemalan government agreed to compensate the bereaved and injured. | North America |
| Tlatelolco Massacre | | 20th | 2 October 1968 | 2 October 1968 | The Tlatelolco Massacre took place on the 2nd of October 1968 at the Plaza de las Tres Culturas (in the Tlatelolco section of Mexico City) when Mexican Armed Forces opened fire on a group of unarmed civilians protesting the Olympic Games that were to take place that October. The Mexican media and government claimed that the Armed Forces were provoked by protesters shooting at them, but government documents made public in 2000 suggest that snipers had been employed by the government. The massacre caused hundreds of deaths, though the exact number is still disputed. | North America |
| Bancroft Treaties | Naturalisation Conventions | 19th, 20th | 1868 | 1937 | The Bancroft Treaties, also known as the Naturalisation Conventions, were a series of agreements between the United States and various other countries. There were 25 agreements in total which aimed to regulate the citizenship of people who emigrated from one country to another. The treaties are named after George Bancroft, a historian and diplomat who negotiated the first treaty. | North America |
| 1871 Treaty of Washington | | 19th | 8 May 1871 | | The 1871 Treaty of Washington was a treaty signed by the United States of America and the United Kingdom to resolve numerous issues between the two nations, predominantly focusing on illegal fishing and the shipping industry during the American Civil War. The treaty resulted in the United Kingdom paying $15.5 million to the US, which restored friendly relations between the two nations. | North America |
| 1896 Treaty of Paris | | 19th | 10 December 1898 | | The Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain, commonly known as the 1898 Treaty of Paris, was signed by Spain and the United States to end the Spanish-American War and Spain’s colonisation of the Philippines. The treaty resulted in Spain ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States of America. In return for the cession of the Philippines, the US paid Spain a compensation of $20 million. | North America |
| Spanish-American War | | 19th | 21 April 1898 | 17 July 1898 | The Spanish-American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Spain, which took place in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The war resulted in victory for the United States, thus ending Spanish colonial rule in North America. The 1898 Treaty of Paris agreed the terms of the end of the war with Spain and ceded the aforementioned countries to the USA. | North America |
| Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903) | Platt Amendment | 20th | 22 May 1903 | 1934 | The 1903 Cuban-American Treaty of Relations, also known as the Platt Amendment, was signed by the United States and the Republic of Cuba on the 22nd of May 1903 to enable the United States’ involvement in Cuban affairs - both international and domestic - to further protect Cuba’s independence. Additionally, the treaty allowed the US to buy and lease land in Cuba to establish naval bases, including Guantanamo Bay. The treaty expired in 1934 with the rise of Cuban nationalism. | North America |
| Treaty of the Danish West Indies | | 20th | 4 August 1916 | | The Treaty of the Danish West Indies, officially the Convention between the United States and Denmark for the cession of the Danish West Indies, was signed by the United States and Denmark on the 4th of August 1916. The treaty transferred sovereignty of the Virgin Islands in the Danish West Indies from Denmark to the United States. In exchange, the United States paid Denmark the equivalent of $25 million in gold. The Danish West Indies became known as the United States Virgin Islands. | North America |
| Hay-Quesada Treaty | Isle of Pines Treaty | 20th | 2 March 1904 | | The Hay-Quesada Treaty, also known as the Isle of Pines Treaty, was signed on the 2nd of March 1904 by the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba. However, the treaty was not ratified by either country until the 13th of March 1925. It was signed by Secretary of State John Hay on behalf of the USA, and Minister Gonzalo de Quesada representing the Republic of Cuba. The treaty ensured the favourable treatment of Americans on the Isle of Pines, along the south coast of Cuba. | North America |
| Bermuda Agreement | | 20th | February 1946 | 1977 | The Bermuda Agreement (formally the Agreement between the government of the United Kingdom and the government of the United States relating to Air Services between their respective Territories) was signed in February 1946 by the United States of America and the United Kingdom. The treaty regulated civil air transport between the two nations but was later replaced by the Bermuda II Agreement signed in 1977. | North America |
| Treaty of Manila of 1946 | Treaty of General Relations | 20th | 4 July 1946 | | The Treaty of Manila of 1946, also known as the Treaty of General Relations, was signed on the 4th of July 1946 by the United States and the Republic of the Philippines. The treaty recognised the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and became effective on the 22nd of October 1946. | North America |
| Alaska Purchase Treaty | | 19th | 30 March 1867 | | The Alaska Purchase Treaty was signed by Russia and the United States on the 30th of March 1867 to formally transfer Alaska from Russia to the United States. In exchange, the United States paid $7.2 million for the territory, for approximately 600,000 square miles. The treaty was signed by US Secretary of State William H. Seward and Russian minister to the US, Eduard de Stoeckl. | North America |
| Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty | | 20th | 18 November 1903 | 7 September 1977 | The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed by Panama and the United States of America on the 18th of November 1903 to establish the Panama Canal Zone and the construction terms for the Panama Canal. The agreement also granted exclusive rights to the United States to use the canal and Isthmus of Panama. This was agreed on confirmation of the US financially reimbursing Panama and protecting the newly formed republic. | North America |
| Neutrality Treaty | | 20th | 7 September 1977 | | The Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal, also known as the Neutrality Treaty, was signed on the 7th of September 1977 by Panama and the United States of America. The treaty determined that the United States would continue to hold the right to defend the Panama Canal should a threat arise. The Neutrality Treaty is also referred to more broadly as part the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, an event which saw the signing of two treaties regarding the Panama Canal, which replaced the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903. | North America |
| Panama Canal Treaty of 1977 | | 20th | 7 September 1977 | | The Panama Canal Treaty was signed on the 7th of September 1977 by Panama and the United States of America. The treaty determined that the Panama Canal Zone would no longer exist as of the 1st of October 1979, and that the Panama Canal would be under Panamanian control as of the 31st of December 1999. The Panama Canal Treaty is also referred to more broadly as part the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, an event which saw the signing of two treaties regarding the Panama Canal, which replaced the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903. | North America |
| North Atlantic Treaty | Washington Treaty | 20th | 4 April 1949 | | The North Atlantic Treaty, also referred to as the Washington Treaty, was signed by the United States and 30 other nations on the 4th of April 1949 in Washington D.C. The treaty was a military alliance which formed the basis of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Originally formed as a counter measure to Soviet armies stationed in Eastern Europe, the United States and many Western European nations joined the military alliance by signing the treaty. | North America |
| Pima Revolt | O'odham Uprising | 18th | November 1751 | 1752 | The Pima Revolt, also known as the Pima Outbreak and the O’odham Uprising, began in November 1751 because of O’odham Native American rebels attacking Spanish missions and settlements in Spanish Arizona due to growing resentment of colonial control. The rebellion failed, with most deaths on the O’odham side of the conflict. | North America |
| Stony Monday Riot | | 19th | 17 September 1849 | 19 September 1849 | The Stony Monday Riot took place on the 17th of September 1849 in Bytown (now Ottawa),Ontario. The Rebellion Losses Bill, established in April 1849, compensated those for the losses suffered in the Rebellions of 1837 to 1838. However, the bill was particularly unpopular because it also compensated those who took part in the rebellions. Lord Elgin, the signatory for the bill, was due to visit Bytown, but the local residents against the bill took up arms to stop the visit. The name of the conflict originates in the use of stones, before the two opposing sides used firearms. Lord Elgin delayed his visit until 1853. | North America |
| Murray Hill Riot | Montreal's Night of Terror | 20th | 7 October 1969 | 7 October 1969 | The Murray Hill Riot, also known as Montreal’s Night of Terror, took place on the 7th of October 1969 in Montreal, Quebec. The riot was a culmination of 16 hours of rioting, looting and civil unrest during a strike by the Montreal Police force, when all 17 of Montreal’s police stations were deserted, as were fire stations. The riot resulted in the death of one police officer and the arrest of 108 people when order was restored. | North America |
| Apache-Mexico Wars | | 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th | 1600s - exact date unknown | 1915 | The Apache-Mexico Wars, also known as the Mexican Apache Wars, refer to the numerous conflicts between the Spanish (and later, Mexican) forces and the Apache peoples. These wars continued from the 1600s to 1915, and took place across north-western Mexico. The wars resulted in a Mexican victory, even though Apache tribes continued to sporadically fight the Mexican government until 1915. | North America |
| Treaty with the Delaware Nation | Treaty of Fort Pitt | 18th | 17 September 1778 | | The Treaty with the Delaware Nation, also known as the Treaty of Fort Pitt, was signed on the 17th of September 1778 by the United States of America and the Lenape Native American people, called Delawares by US settlers. The Lenape people agreed to guide the US Army across their lands to British locations, and in return the US would offer protection and trade goods. However, the United States did not fulfil their part of the treaty, and the treaty began to fail within weeks of signing. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) | 1768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix | 18th | 5th November 1768 | 1784 | The Treaty of Fort Stanwix, also known as the 1768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the First Treaty of Fort Stanwix, was a treaty signed on the 5th of November 1768 by Great Britain and representatives of the Native American Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca peoples. The treaty established a new border line, which involved the Native American ceding land east and south of the boundary to Great Britain. This cession increased the colonial lands significantly since the Proclamation Line established in 1763. This treaty was rewritten in 1784 after the American Revolutionary War. | North America |
| Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix | Treaty with the Six Nations | 18th | 22 October 1784 | | The Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix, also known as the Treaty with the Six Nations, was signed on the 22nd of October 1784 by the United States of America and the Cayuga, Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, and Onondaga, known as the Six Nations. The treaty occurred after the American Revolutionary War and resulted in the Native American peoples ceding more territory to the US government. | North America |
| Muscogee Treaty | Treaty of New York | 18th | 7 August 1790 | | The Muscogee Treaty, also known as the Treaty of New York, was signed on the 7th of August 1790 by the United States of America and the Muscogee Native American people to establish permanent peace and friendship. However, the treaty also resulted in the Muscogee people ceding a considerable amount of land to the USA and agreeing to give fugitive American slaves to the authorities. | North America |
| Treaty of Canandaigaua | Pickering Treaty | 18th | 11 November 1790 | | The Treaty of Canandaigaua, also referred to as the Pickering Treaty and the Calico Treaty, was signed on the 11th of November 1794 by the United States of America and the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, which included Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk and Tuscarora Native American peoples. The treaty was signed by representatives from the Six Nations and Colonel Timothy Pickering, the official agent of President George Washington. The treaty further established peace between the US and the Six Nations, whilst also restoring lands to the Six Nations that were ceded in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. This treaty is still actively recognised by all parties involved. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Wayne | | 19th | 30 September 1809 | November 1811 (exact date unknown) | The Treaty of Fort Wayne was signed on the 30th of September 1809 by the United States of America and Native American people consisting of Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribal members. The treaty resulting in the four tribes ceding 2.5 million acres of land to the United States government. However, the signing of the treaty caused growing tensions between Native American groups and the United States government, with armed conflict beginning in November 1811 at the Battle of Tippecanoe. | North America |
| Treaty with the Potawatomi | | 19th | 5 August 1836 | | The Treaty with the Potawatomi was signed on the 5th August 1836 by the United States of America and the Potawatomi Native American people. The treaty was a repeal of the 1832 peace treaty which promised that the Potawatomi people could keep their land in northern Indiana. The United States broke the 1832 agreement and forced the Potawatomi to sell their land and travel westward. This forced removal became known at the Trail of Death. | North America |
| Horse Creek Treaty | Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 | 19th | 17 September 1851 | | The Horse Creek Treaty, also known as the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, was signed on the 17th of September 1851 by the USA and representatives of eight different Native American nations, named as the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara people. The treaty was created to ease tensions between the Native American people and the United States of America, whilst also stipulating that the Plains Native Americans would stop inter-tribal fighting. The treaty also determined that Native Americans would let white settlers travel safely through their lands. | North America |
| Treaty of Medicine Creek | | 19th | 26 December 1854 | | The Treaty of Medicine Creek was signed on the 26th of December 1854 by the United States of America and nine Native American tribes of the Nisqually, Puyallup, Steilacoom, Squawskin (Squaxin Island),S'Homamish, Stehchass, T'Peeksin, Squi-aitl, and Sa-heh-wamish people. The Native American tribes ceded 2.5 million acres to the United States of America in exchange for three reservations and $32,500 paid over 13 years. The treaty was eventually ratified in 1855. | North America |
| Little Arkansas Treaty | Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho | 19th | 14 and 18 October 1865 | 1867 (exact date unknown) | The Little Arkansas Treaty, also known as the Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, were a pair of treaties signed on the 14th and 18th October 1865 by the United States of America and the Cheyenne and Arapaho Native American tribes of the Little Arkansas River. The treaties set out to create reservations for the Native American which were never built and offered reparations for the Sand Creek Massacre. The treaty eventually failed approximately two years later and was replaced by the Medicine Lodge Treaty. | North America |
| Johnson County War | Wyoming Range War | 19th | April 1892 | May 1892 | The Johnson County War, also known as the Wyoming Range War and the War on Powder River, was an armed conflict which took place in April and May 1892 between the Wyoming Stock Growers Association (WGSA) and local homesteaders. Cattle companies, supported by WGSA, began accusing homesteaders and ranchers of cattle rustling. The conflict erupted as a result of a number of ranchers being lynched and killed for their supposed crimes, many of which had not been fully investigated. The war was brought to an end when the United States Army were deployed to the region. | North America |
| Río Blanco Uprising | Río Blanco Labour Dispute | 20th | 7 January 1907 | 7 January 1907 | The Río Blanco Uprising, also known as the Río Blanco Labour Dispute, took place in Río Blanco, in the south-eastern Mexican state of Veracruz. Tensions had been building between workers and foreign-owned textile companies since 1906 due to poor working conditions. Violence broke out on the 7th January 1907 after several riots and resulted in a massacre, which became one of the key uprisings that led to the Mexican Revolution. | North America |
| Sagebrush War | Boundary War | 19th | 15 February 1863 | 15 February 1863 | The Sagebrush War, also known as the Boundary War, was an armed conflict between the California county of Plumas and the Nevada county of Roop, a county that no longer exists. The conflict began as a result of no one knowing the placement of the 120th Meridian line, which was designated as the eastern boundary of California in 1850 by John C. Fremont. The battle took place on the 15th of February 1863, ending with a truce which resulted in the formation of Lassen County, California in 1864. Only two people were injured in this short conflict. | North America |
| Battle of Cut Knife | | 19th | 2 May 1885 | 2 May 1885 | The Battle of Cut Knife took place on the 2nd of May 1885 near Battleford, Saskatchewan in Canada. The conflict was a result of armed Canadian law enforcement and Canadian Army attacking Cree and Assiniboine Native American tribes. The battle ended in a stalemate but contributed to the escalation of violence in the North-West Rebellion. | North America |
| Évian Accords | | 20th | | 18 March 1962 | The Évian Accords were signed in Évian-les-Bains, France, by the French Republic and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic. These treaties sought to end the Algerian War. France had pursued an imperial venture in Algeria for over a century, exploiting its resources and imposing French culture and institutions. The accords intended to provide for Algeria's independence, recognise the FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) as the legitimate representative of the Algerian people, and address issues relating to property, citizenship, and minority rights. | Africa |
| Madrid Accords | Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara | 20th | | 14 November 1975 | The Madrid Accords, also known as the Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara, aimed to end the Spanish colonisation of Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony in North Africa. The Kingdom of Morocco, which had imperial aspirations over the territory, claimed sovereignty over Western Sahara, leading to conflict with the indigenous Polisario Front who sought self-determination for the Sahrawi people. The Madrid Accords recognised Morocco's claim but promised a referendum on self-determination. However, the referendum has yet to occur, and the conflict remains unresolved. | Africa |
| First Sahrawi Intifada | | 20th, 21st | September 1999 | January 2004 | The First Sahrawi Intifada was characterised by large demonstrations. These took place after the death of King Hassan II of Morocco and during the first weeks of the reign of King Mohammed VI who promised democracy and reform. The uprising was initially student led but grew to include miners and others. The intifada resulted in the 2003 United Nations initiative known as the Baker Plan and, in January 2004, King Mohammed VI released twelve Sahrawi activists. However, peace negotiations had reached a standstill by 2005. This led to The Second Antifada of that year. | Africa |
| Second Sahrawi Intifada | Independence Intifada | 21st | 21 May 2005 | Date contested | The Second Sahrawi Intifada, also known as Independence Intifada, was an uprising that began in response to the decision of the Moroccan authorities to transfer a political prisoner to southern Morocco where it would be difficult for his Sahrawi family to visit him. Demonstrations started in al-‘Ayun, but quickly spread to other places in Western Sahara and southern Morocco. Many Sahrawi’s were arrested, and protesters beaten, causing international outcry. Although the Western Sahara conflict is ongoing, the intensity of this particular conflict started waning in 2008. | Africa |
| Western Sahara Partition Agreement | Convention Concerning the State Frontier Line | 19th, 20th | | 14 April 1976 | The Western Sahara Partition Agreement, also known as the Convention Concerning the State Frontier Line, was a treaty signed in 1976 between the Kingdom of Morocco and Islamic Republic of Mauritania which divided Western Sahara between the two countries following Spain relinquishing its colonial rule. This agreement demarcated the boundaries between the two countries. However, the conflict in western Sahara officially continued until 1991, when a ceasefire was signed. The issue of Western Sahara's status remains unresolved. | Africa |
| Hut Tax War | Temne-Mende War | 19th, 20th | 1898 | 9 March 1989 | The Hut Tax War, also known as the Temne-Mende War, was a conflict that occurred in Sierra Leone. The British colonial government introduced a ten shilling tax on huts. This was seen as an economic burden on the indigenous population and led to a rebellion by the Temne and Mende ethnic groups, who were opposed to British colonial rule. The British colonial forces defeated the rebels after several months of fighting resulting in thousands of deaths through guerrilla warfare and scorched earth tactics. The rebel’s rulers, such as Bai Bureh, were executed or deported. | Africa |
| Nova Scotian Rebellion | | 19th | 1800 | 1800 | The Nova Scotian Rebellion that took place in 1800 in Sierra Leone is under documented. Nova Scotians had come to Sierra Leone in 1787 and were one of the crucial groups of settlers who founded the city now known as Freetown. The Sierra Leone Company controlled resources in the colony and its decision to impose a land tax ultimately led to the rebellion of the Nova Scotian settlers in 1800. The settlers were defeated by British Naval forces and so the rebellion failed. | Africa |
| Revolt of the Pende | | 20th | Date contested | September 1931 | The Revolt of the Pende is interpreted as one of the largest uprisings in the Congo during Belgian colonial rule before the struggle for independence. Many members of the Pende ethnic group were employed by a Lever Brothers - ancestor of present-day Unilever - subsidiary where they worked in unethical conditions. As a result of the Pende’s dissatisfaction, a Belgian official was killed when visiting to collect taxes. This was followed by a punitive expedition by the Belgians and the killing of at least 400 Pende tribe members who were led by Matemu-a-Kenenia in the Kwilu region. | Africa |
| Batetela Rebellion | | 19th | 1895 | Date contested | The Batetela Rebellion refers to an uprising of the Tetela ethnic group in the Congo Free State, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, against Belgian colonial rule. In Luluabourg, Batelela soldiers, angry at being paid late, found out that the authorities had executed their leader. They took control of the camp and killed Captain Peltzer. Soon, the mutiny had evolved into a full-scale revolt and spread over the Lomami region. Though the rebellion was eventually suppressed, the last rebels were only captured in 1908. Some accounts do note that the region was ‘pacified’ by 1902. | Africa |
| Kitawalist Uprising | Masisi-Lubutu Revolt | 20th | 16 February 1944 | 1944 | The Kitawalist Uprising, also known as the Masisi-Lubutu Revolt, was a rebellion that started in the Kivu region of the Belgian Congo, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. The leader of the revolt was Bushiri Lungunda whose followers believed that he was Yesu Mukumbozi or Jesus the Redeemer. Their arrest of a colonial agent, and his subsequent humiliation, led to a violent and large-scale revolt against the Belgian colonists. Acts of atrocity were committed by Bushiri and his followers as well as the Belgian colonists who, after only a month or so of fighting, crushed the rebellion. | Africa |
| Ndirfi Revolt | Ndirfi Mutiny | 19th, 20th | 14 February 1897 | August 1900 | The Ndirfi Revolt, also known as the Ndirfi Mutiny, took place in the north-east of the Congo Free State, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, and started after 2,500 troops were forced to march for 150 days with few provisions and little rest by Belgian colonial agents. Since the revolt involved an army of thousands of rebels, it was hard for the colonial powers to suppress. After three years though, in August of 1900, approximately 2,000 Baoni, as the Ndirfi rebels were called, surrendered themselves to German East African authorities. | Africa |
| Luanda Agreement | | 21st | 2002 | | The Luanda Agreement established a ceasefire between the Republic of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) after many years of armed conflict. This agreement altered the terms of the Lusaka Agreement which initially aimed to end the Second Congo War. It was ruled by the International Court of Justice that Uganda was the occupying power in this instance and it is generally agreed that Uganda had been plundering the DRC for its valuable minerals. The Luanda Agreement has not been adhered to by either country involved. | Africa |
| Pretoria Accord | | 21st | July 2002 | | The Pretoria Accord was a peace agreement signed in South Africa by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the Republic of Rwanda which aimed at ending the Second Congo War. The accord provided for the withdrawal of 20,000 Rwandan troops from the DRC and the disarmament of Rwandan and Congolese rebel groups. It established a mechanism for the repatriation of Rwandan refugees and the management of natural resources in the eastern DRC. The agreement was seen as a significant step towards ending the conflict although since there have been challenges to its implementation. | Africa |
| Anglo-Aro War | | 20th | November 1901 | March 1902 | The Anglo-Aro War was fought between the Aro Confederacy and the British Empire in a region that is part of present-day Nigeria. The Aro Confederacy resisted the continuing colonisation of Eastern Nigeria by the British Empire, as they had economic and cultural dominance over this area. In the spring of 1902, at the battle of Bende, the Aro were defeated. Though this formally marked the end of the war, Aro resistance continued and therefore challenges to British colonisation of the area remained. | Africa |
| Fulani War | Fulani Jihad | 19th | 21 February 1804 | 1808 | The Fulani War, also known as the Fulani Jihad, was a religious war led by Usman Dan Fodio that took place in the region covering present-day Nigeria and Cameroon. Usman Dan Fodio led an army of Fulani, a largely pastoral populace, to capture the Hausa Kingdom, ruled by Sarkin Gobir Yunfa. Many joined the jihad, declaring that Usman Dan Fodio was Amir al-Mu’minin. The Fulani won the war and captured the Hausa Kingdom. This resulted in the founding of the Sokoto Caliphate which enjoyed political power in the region until the British conquest and exists to this day as a spiritual authority. | Africa |
| Bussa Rebellion | Sabukki Revolt | 20th | June 1915 | June 1915 | The Bussa Rebellion, also known as the Sabukki Revolt, occurred in the small town of Bussa which was then part of Colonial Nigeria ruled by the British Empire. After the local Emir, Kitoro Gani, was replaced by a Native Administration, Prince Sabukki led an insurrection resulting in half of the new administration being killed by rebels. The remaining members fled, leaving the rebels in control of Bussa. Although the British were distracted at the time by their ongoing war with the Germans, they curbed the rebellion before the end of that month. | Africa |
| Ekumeku War | | 19th, 20th | 1898 | 1911 | The Ekumeku War was fought between the British Empire and the Anioma people - referred to as Ekumeku - in the Asaba hinterland of present-day Nigeria. The Ekumeku had the intention of driving out the Royal Niger Company and their trading posts. The war was characterised by militancy and over ten years of struggle. Supporters of British rule had their houses burnt and were sometimes killed. The Ekumeku also defied the Native Court and missionaries. The war culminated in severe fighting in 1911, followed by a mass trial and the imprisonment and eventual defeat of the Ekumeku movement. | Africa |
| Kwale Uprising | Kwale Revolt | 20th | November 1914 | November 1914 | The Kwale Uprising, also known as the Kwale Revolt, broke out in the Warri province in present-day Nigeria in 1914. The indigenous population greatly resented clerks and government messengers from the British authorities due to the British manipulation of the Native Court system. As the uprising grew, the Kwales were joined by Urhobo and Ika-Ibo in the murder of court clerks and other outsiders - such as Yoruba and Hausa - who commonly worked as spies for the colonial administration. The rebels also destroyed British property. This went on for some weeks before the rebellion was quashed. | Africa |
| Iseyin-Okeiho Rising | Oke-Ogun Rebellion | 20th | October 1916 | November 1916 | The Iseyin-Okeiho Rising, also known as the Oke-Ogun Rebellion, was a revolt in Colonial Nigeria primarily caused by administrative changes introduced by the British that clashed with existing political and social systems. The population of the Okeiho and Oyo areas was particularly dissatisfied with this British centralising influence. The rebellion quickly grew and several government buildings were set on fire. In response, military operations were launched by the British and several leaders of the uprising were executed. The conflict was over by November 1916. | Africa |
| Igbo Women's War | Aba Women’s Riot | 20th | 23 November 1929 | January 1930 | The Igbo Women’s War, or the Aba Women’s Riot, started in southeastern Nigeria amidst the implementation of taxes overseen by a local British colonial administrator who had ordered that all women’s belongings needed to be counted, so they could be taxed. Women from six ethnic groups (Ibibio, Andoni, Ogoni, Bonny, Opobo and Igbo) mobilised by blockading roads, destroying telegraph polls, damaging banks, and attacking the Native Court. These attacks were essentially nonviolent, but colonial administrators acted mercilessly in opposition. Women were shot and villages burned. | Africa |
| Chadian–Libyan Conflict | | 20th | 29 January 1978 | 11 September 1987 | The Chadian-Libyan Conflict began with the Ibrahim Abatcha offensive against the Malloum government led by Libya and pro-Libyan Chadian factions. With the help of Libya, Chadian dissidents had already taken control of large parts of northern Chad. After this first offensive, France - Chad’s former coloniser - became involved at the request of Malloum. Libya was defeated in the last phase of the conflict, which is sometimes referred to as the Toyota War. Gaddafi, the leader of Libya, blamed US and French aggression for this defeat. | Africa |
| Shaba I | | 20th | 8 March 1977 | 26 May 1977 | Shaba I involved an invasion of Shaba, a province in Zaire which is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, by rebels known as the Kantangan Gerdarmes. They invaded Shaba in March 1977, predominantly non-violently. France supported the leadership of Zaire and provided military support. Although the reason for the invasion remains unclear, many Cuban troops were present in Angola where the rebels had been stationed. Due to this, there was international concern about encroaching communism and Soviet expansionism. Mobutu, the leader of Zaire, was eventually triumphant. | Africa |
| Shaba II | | 20th | 11 May 1978 | June 1978 | Shaba II was a conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. More than 2,000 members of the FLNC (Front de Liberation Nationale du Congo) seized the city of Kolwezi. Mobutu, the leader of Zaire, appealed to France for assistance and, partly due to the European population working in Kolwezi, they agreed. After intervention from both Belgian and French governments, the FLNC was eventually defeated. However, many Zairian and European civilians lost their lives as a result of this struggle. | Africa |
| First Franco-Dahomean War | | 19th | 21 February 1890 | 4 October 1890 | The First Franco-Dahomean War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Dahomey and The French Third Republic, in present-day Benin. It started in Cotonou in the early weeks of 1890 when a force of mainly Senegalese and Gabonese soldiers were trained and led by French officers to capture this port city. This military force arrested senior Dahomey officials on 21 February 1890 which started the war. The war consisted of two main battles, one taking place on 4 March and the other on 4 April, which resulted in huge losses for the Dahomeans and were followed by peace negotiations. | Africa |
| Second Franco-Dahomean War | | 19th | 4 July 1892 | 15 January 1894 | The Second Franco-Dahomean War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Dahomey and The French Third Republic, in present-day Benin. The cause of the conflict was largely France’s colonial aspirations for the area. It was sparked by a Dahomean attack of a French ship in the Oueme valley. The Dahomean army was destroyed as a result of several battles that took place over the course of seven weeks and met its final end at the village of Diokoue, outside Cana. The French occupied the capital, Abomey, and hoisted their flag over the Royal Palaces. | Africa |
| The Accord | | 21st | 20 June 2015 | | The Agreement for Peace and Reconciliation in Mali Resulting from the Algiers Process, or simply “the Accord”, was a peace treaty written and signed with the intention of bringing peace to the Republic of Mali. It was signed by the Malian government as well as six armed rebel groups who had sustained fighting since the 2012 insurgency, known as the Platform and the Coordination of Azawad Movements. The agreement was mediated by Algeria and the UN. Since it was signed, the process that it sought to implement - one based on decentralisation and reconciliation - has been difficult to apply. | Africa |
| Reduction of Lagos | Bombardment of Lagos | 19th | 1851 | 1852 | The Reduction of Lagos, also known as the Bombardment of Lagos, was a conflict taking place in Lagos, in present-day Nigeria. The first attack was made by British naval forces under the pretext of ending the Atlantic Slave trade of which Lagos was the centre. It is more likely that their motivations were commercial. This first attack resulted in a British defeat. However, a second attack a month later led to the defeat of Kosoko, the Oba (King) of Lagos. Britain then installed Oba Akitoye who signed a treaty on 1 January 1852 agreeing to abolish the slave trade in Lagos. | Africa |
| Batepá Massacre | | 20th | 3 February 1953 | 3 February 1953 | The Batepá Massacre took place in São Tomé, the capital city of São Tomé and Príncipe, a colony of the Portuguese Empire. It was caused by rumours that, due to the labour shortages on the island, workers from Cape Verde would be brought in and given the land of the native people. These led to large protests which Governor Gorgulho took as a sign of a communist uprising. He urged all white colonists to take up arms. What followed was the torture, detention, and killing of hundreds of the native creoles. The aftermath marked the rise of the independence movement in Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe. | Africa |
| Ikiza | Ubwicanyi | 20th | April 1972 | August 1972 | The Ikiza, also known as the Ubwicanyi, was a genocide that took place in the small nation of Burundi. The genocide was brought about because of differences between the Hutu, the pastoral majority, and the Tutsi elite. Hutus led an insurrection in April 1972 and counter attacks followed. The death toll is still unclear but is likely more than 200,000, both Hutu and Tutsi and from all parts of society. The killings continued until August 1972. | Africa |
| 1993 Killings in Burundi | October 1993 Massacres | 20th | 21 October 1993 | December 1993 | The 1993 Killings in Burundi, also known as the October 1993 Massacres, happened in Burundi after the democratic elections of June of the same year. In October, Tutsi rebels attempted a coup to dismantle the presidency of the newly elected Hutu president Ndadaye. This failed, although the president was murdered. What followed was the mass killing of Tutsis, largely by Hutu civilians. Hutus were also killed by soldiers and Tutsi civilians. The death toll is unknown but probably between 100,000 and 500,000 in just a few months. | Africa |
| Spanish Conquest of Tripoli | | 16th | 25 July 1510 | 25 July 1510 | The Spanish Conquest of Tripoli was led by Pedro Navarro with the aim of warning Muslims that the Christians could advance into North Africa and also in order to set up a shipping route via Sicily. Navarro’s fleet took off from Sicily and, after stopping in Malta, arrived in Tripoli on 24 July 1510. The army attacked the following day, killing over 3,000 inhabitants. Tripoli surrendered three hours into the fight and remained under the control of the Spanish until it was ceded to the Knights of the Order of St John of Jerusalem in 1530. | Africa |
| Mokrani Revolt | Unfaq urrumi (“French war”) | 19th | 16 March 1871 | 20 January 1872 | The Mokrani Revolt, also known as the Unfaq urrumi (“French war”),was the largest insurrection since the start of the French conquest of Algeria. Sheikh Mohamed El-Mokrani, having raised an army of 10,000, was joined by Sheikh Aheddad, a spiritual chief. 250 tribes joined the revolt, resulting in tens of thousands of fighters. The revolt happened when the Paris Commune, a French revolutionary government, had seized power in Paris. When the Commune was suppressed, the French government violently repressed the revolt in Algeria. Sheikh El-Mokrani was killed in May 1871. | Africa |
| Desmichels Treaty | | 19th | 26 February 1834 | | The Desmichels Treaty was signed in 1834, two years after Abd al-Qadir had taken over as the leader of the resistance to the French occupation of Algeria. The treaty, signed by General Louis-Alexis Desmichels of France and Abd al-Qadir, gave the latter control over the entirety of the province of Oran. In order to unite his territory, Abd al-Qadir made himself chief of all tribes within the Chelif and went on to occupy Miliana and Medea. His military successes and powers of negotiation allowed him to rally much support from Algerians who abhorred the French and their use of violence. | Africa |
| 1977 Seychelles Coup D'État | | 20th | 4 June 1977 | 5 June 1977 | The 1977 Seychelles Coup D'État was a rebellion against the government of President Mancham. 200 insurgents took over the main island of Mahé and were fired upon by police, during which two men were killed. The insurgents then arrested six British officers who had been advising the police since independence was granted the year prior and installed France-Albert René as president. The coup was aided by the Tanzanian government at the time. | Africa |
| Uganda–Tanzania War | 1979 Liberation War | 20th | 9 October 1978 | 3 June 1979 | The Uganda-Tanzania War, also known as the 1979 Liberation War, was a conflict in Uganda that led to the overthrow and exile of President Idi Amin of Uganda. The war began in early October of 1978 when the first Ugandan troops entered Tanzania and declared the annexation of territory north of the Kagera River. Nyerere, the President of Tanzania, and Idi Amin had a strained relationship due to Nyerere’s friendship with the former President of Uganda from whom Amin had seized power. The Tanzanians forced Uganda’s retreat and, after only seven months, Idi Amin from power. | Africa |
| Bouamama Uprising | Revolt of Sheikh Bouamama | 19th | 1881 | 1894 | The Bouamama Uprising, also known as the Revolt of Sheikh Bouamama, was led by Cheikh Bouamama in the southern region of Oran in Algeria. It was intended as an attack against French rule and occupation of Algeria, but failed due to fragmentation and disturbance between tribal groups. | Africa |
| 1981 Seychelles Coup d'État Attempt | Operation Angela | 20th | 25 November 1981 | 1981 | The 1981 Seychelles Coup d'État Attempt, also known as Operation Angela, was a failed endeavour by the South African government and military intelligence services to acquire influence over the Seychelles. ‘Mad’ Mike Hoare, an Irish soldier living in South Africa, and around 45 soldiers, arrived at Seychelles airport pretending to be tourists. Weapons were found in their luggage and a firefight ensued. The majority of the soldiers escaped on a hijacked plane, but six men were arrested and tried. South Africa reportedly paid a $3 million ransom for their lives. | Africa |
| Revolt of Abd al-Qadir | | 19th | 1833 | 1847 | The Revolt of Abd al-Qadir is considered to be one of the most significant acts of resistance during the French conquest of Algeria. Abd al-Qadir enlisted an army of 10,000 and, in 1833, he successfully invaded Tlemcen and signed the Desmichels treaty which ensured his power over Oran. Later, his victories over the French and the Treaty of Tafna gave Abd al-Qadir control of most of Algeria. However, due to a loss of support from Morocco, the rebellion eventually failed with the surrender of Abd al-Qadir in 1847. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tafna | | 19th | 25 May 1837 | | The Treaty of Tafna was signed by representatives of France and Algeria with the premise of ending the fighting between imperial French troops and the Algerian resistance force. The French, led by General Bugeaud, were certain that they would continue to encounter resistance in their conquest of Algeria and that negotiating with Abd al-Qadir, leading the Algerian resistance, would be more commercially beneficial than implementing a scorched earth policy. Abd al-Qadir’s territory, after the Tafna Treaty, extended outside of the Oran province and into central Algeria. | Africa |
| Diggers' Revolt in Griqualand West | Black Flag Revolt | 19th | 1875 | 1875 | The Diggers Revolt in Griqualand West, also known as the Black Flag Revolt, was a short-lived uprising in South Africa. White diamond miners, wanting to exclude non-whites from the diamond mining industry except in controlled labour roles, revolted against the newly proclaimed status of Griqualand West as a British colony. The revolt was a failure as much of the diggers work was being mechanised and individual miners were being forced out by large companies already. | Africa |
| Ga-Fante War | | 19th | 1811 | 1811 | The Ga-Fante War was a conflict that took place in 1811 and started when Osei Bonsu from the Ashanti Empire, covering present-day Ghana and parts of Ivory Coast and Togo, sent an army to defend Accra and Elmina against the Fante Confederacy. The latter received material and military support from the British. A battle was fought at Apam between the Fante and Ashanti which resulted in huge losses on both sides. During this war between Ashanti and the Fante, the British had been trying to abolish the slave trade. The war resulted in an inconclusive victory for the Ashanti. | Africa |
| Ashanti–Akim–Akwapim War | Ashanti Invasion of the Gold Coast | 19th | 1814 | 1816 | The Ashanti-Akim-Akwapim War, also known as the Ashanti Invasion of the Gold Coast, was a series of conflicts with the intention of expanding the Ashanti Empire towards the coast. This war took place under Osei Bonsu and began in 1814 when he sent his army to defeat the Akyem and Akwapim army. He was successful and his eventual acquisition of the coast resulted in him being given the nickname, ‘Whale’. | Africa |
| Kusasi-Mamprusi Conflict in Bawku | Bawku Chieftaincy Conflict | 20th, 21st | Date contested | Ongoing | The Kusasi-Mamprusi Conflict in Bawku, also known as the Bawku Chieftaincy Conflict, was triggered by a dispute over chieftaincy in Bawku in Northern Ghana. The conflict is rooted in British colonial policies, especially those resulting from the Kusasi Conference of 1931 and the Mamprusi Conference of 1932. In 1983, an instance of mass violence led to 30 people being killed. Another period of violence occurred in 2000 - during a presidential election - and the situation repeated itself in 2007 and 2008. The conflict, and who is recognised as the chief of Bawku, remains unresolved. | Africa |
| Nawuri-Gonja Conflict | | 20th | 1991 | 1992 | The Nawuri-Gonja Conflict was a dispute that took place in Northern Ghana. It was rooted in the implementation of new constructs of allodial land rights by the British colonial administration, which challenged traditional rights. The taking up of arms, in 1991 and 1992, followed disputes after a political conference in 1930 at Yapei - aimed at organising the Gonja succession - which had been organised by the British. The colonial administration did not acknowledge the jurisdiction of the Nawuri and, even up to the 1990s, the Gonja refused to recognise the Nawuri chieftains. | Africa |
| Konkomba-Nanumba Conflict | Guinea Fowl War | 20th | 1994 | 2015 | The Konkomba-Nanumba Conflict, also known as the Guinea Fowl War, was a conflict which was sparked by a minor trade dispute between a Konkomba and a Nanumba man in Northern Ghana, arguably over the price of guinea fowl. The war resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, many more displaced persons and over 500 destroyed villages. The root of the conflict has been attributed to the British colonial administration’s failure to reconstruct citizenship and its inability to promote notions of ethnic equality. | Africa |
| Anglo-Zanzibar War | Bombardment of Zanzibar | 19th | 27 August 1896 | 27 August 1896 | The Anglo-Zanzibar War, also known as the Bombardment of Zanzibar, has been argued to be the shortest war on record. British warships bombarded the island, now part of Tanzania, and within 40 minutes hundreds of people had died. Zanzibar, a former colony of Oman, had declared itself independent in 1858 but had become a British protectorate in 1890. In 1896, pro-British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini died and Khalid bin Barghash seized control. Since he would be less favourable to British interests, the British quickly responded by starting this war. | Africa |
| Zanzibar Revolution | | 20th | 12 January 1964 | 12 January 1964 | The Zanzibar Revolution occurred in January 1964 on the island of Zanzibar, now part of Tanzania. Zanzibar had been conquered by Oman in 1698, but reclaimed independence in 1858 before becoming a protectorate of the British Empire in 1890. By 1964, Zanzibar was a constitutional monarchy. There was a class divide between the Arab inhabitants, who were the main landowners, and the largely Black African population. The violent and ultimately successful revolution was brought about by 800 poorly-armed, mainly African insurgents. It was led by John Okello. | Africa |
| First Matabele War | | 19th | October 1893 | January 1894 | The First Matabele War took place in Matabeleland and Mashonaland, parts of present-day Zimbabwe, and was a conflict between the Ndebele (Matabele) Kingdom and the British South Africa Company. Cecil Rhodes, the premier of South Africa at that time, had set his sights on Matabeleland. After an attack on Ndebele cattle by Mashona thieves, Ndebele reacted with a massacre of 400 people. This was used as a reason for Rhodes to attack the Ndebele Kingdom, ruled by King Lobengula. The Ndebele, despite having more troops, lost the war due to the nature of the British weaponry. | Africa |
| First Sekhukhune War | | 19th | 16 May 1876 | 16 February 1877 | The First Sekhukhune War was a conflict that took place in what is now South Africa between the Marota people, and the South African Republic led by President Thomas François Burgers. Burgers declared war on Sekhukhune, the king of the Marota, but suffered a humiliating defeat which lost him his position as president. The war was officially ended by the signing of a treaty in 1877 in which Sekhuhune agreed upon the boundaries of his territory. | Africa |
| Second Sekhukhune War | | 19th | 1878 | 1879 | The Second Sekhukhune War was a conflict that took place in what is now South Africa after the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877. This was a conflict between the Marota people, led by King Sekhukhune, and the British. Sekhukhune was looking to drive out the Europeans, as he believed that his Kingdom fell outside the jurisdiction of Pretoria. After a series of brutal battles, the British finally won the war against Sekhukhune. The King was captured and imprisoned in Pretoria until 1881 and later murdered in Manoge in 1882. | Africa |
| Anglo-Zulu War | | 19th | 11 January 1879 | 4 July 1879 | The Anglo-Zulu War was a conflict between the Zulus and the British that took place in South Africa. Following the annexation of Transvaal in 1877 and increased unease between the Zulus, the Boers and the British, King Cetshwayo - the leader of the Zulus - amassed an army of between 40,000 and 60,000 men. In response, British troops invaded and lost at Isandhlwana. However, after a decisive victory at Ulundi on 4 July 1879, Zululand was won by the British. | Africa |
| First Kongo-Portuguese War | | 17th | 1622 | 1622 | The First Kongo-Portuguese War started when a Portuguese army, bolstered by a high number of native warriors from Angola, moved against the Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese-Angola army attacked Mbumbi in the Kingdom of Kongo. The Portuguese-Angola army won this battle and took many war prisoners. According to records, the Imbangala mercenaries, who were part of the Portuguese-Angola army, cannibalised many of the war prisoners. The outcome of this battle led the Kingdom of Kongo to declare war on Portuguese Angola and expel the Portuguese from their territories. | Africa |
| Bakassi Conflict | | 20th, 21st | Date contested | Ongoing | The Bakassi conflict is a conflict in Cameroon between separatists and the government. The conflict follows from the independence of Nigeria and Cameroon in 1960 and the position of British Cameroons. Half of British Cameroons voted to be part of Nigeria and the other part of Cameroon. However, the borders were not clearly demarcated, and the Bakassi Peninsula became the site of major dispute. Violence in the area started in the 1980s with a clash between coast guards and continues to this day. | Africa |
| 1913 Anglo-German Treaty | | 20th | 11 March 1913 | | The 1913 Anglo-German Treaty was signed in London by Britain and Germany, as part of which the British ceded the Bakassi peninsula to Germany. The treaty marked the boundary from Yola to the sea and maintained Bakassi in Cameroon. The agreement was not implemented, which had consequences after the independence of Cameroon and Nigeria in 1960 and led to the Bakassi conflict. | Africa |
| Accord of al-Rajima | | 20th | 25 October 1920 | | The Accord of al-Rajima was a treaty following the Treaty of Acroma and the Senussi Campaign in which Italian sovereignty was recognised by the Senussi and its leader Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi. The latter was acknowledged as the Emiro Senusso and was allowed autonomous administrative control over the interior (present-day Libya) and an annual payment. The Senussi army was disbanded and disarmed. | Africa |
| First Treaty of Lausanne | Treaty of Ouchy | 20th | 18 October 1912 | | The First Treaty of Lausanne, also known as the Treaty of Ouchy, was signed after the Italo-Turkish War which took place in Libya. As part of this treaty, Turkey conceded its control over Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy. It has also been suggested that it gave autonomy to the inhabitants of Libya, the Senussi, and left them to defend themselves against the Italians. | Africa |
| Accord of Bu Mariam | | 20th | 7 November 1921 | | The Accord of Bu Mariam was a treaty signed in Libya which recognised that there were two conflicting sovereignties in Cyrenaica, the Italians and the Senussi. Senussi armed forces were to be disbanded and there were to be four mixed camps of Italian and Senussi soldiers. This treaty added agreements to those already documented in the Treaty of Acroma and the Accord of al-Rajima, all written after the Italo-Turkish War. | Africa |
| Angolan Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 11 November 1975 | 4 April 2002 | The Angolan Civil War was a conflict that followed the Angolan War of Independence. The Alvor Agreement, which granted Angola independence, established a transitional government, which soon fell apart. There was a power struggle mostly between two opposing political parties: The MPLA and UNITA. The Civil War was influenced by various international agendas, like that of the Soviet Union, the United States of America and Cuba. After a period of peace between 1988 and 1992, the war started again before finally coming to its end in 2002 with the death of the leader of UNITA. | Africa |
| Cabinda War | | 20th, 21st | 8 November 1975 | Ongoing | The Cabinda War is an ongoing conflict in a province of Angola which is separated from the rest of the country by a narrow strip of land that is part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The war is being fought by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda with the aim of gaining independence from Angola. The conflict in Cabinda ran alongside the Angolan Civil War until its resolution in 2002. Since then, fighting in Cabinda has continued despite a peace treaty assuring Cabinda’s status as part of Angola. | Africa |
| Paquisha War | Fake Paquisha War | 20th | 22 January 1981 | 21 February 1981 | The Paquisha War, also known as the Fake Paquisha War, was a conflict between Peru and Ecuador. Peru alleged that Ecuador had installed three Ecuadorian military detachments within the Peruvian zone, while Ecuador claimed that the military base was in Paquisha, an area that belonged to Ecuador. After measuring the coordinates, it was found that it did not belong to the Paquisha area according to the protocol previously signed by both countries. The war ended with the destruction of the Ecuadorian military posts by the Peruvian army, and the intervention of the Organization of American States (OAS),which fixed the location coordinates. | South America |
| Cenepa War | Alto Cenepa War | 20th | 26 January 1995 | 28 February 1995 | The Cenepa War, also known as the Alto Cenepa War, was a military conflict between Peru and Ecuador over the lack of demarcation of their border due to a geographical accident. According to Ecuador, the previously signed treaty between the two countries was invalid since it was signed under pressure, and because the Canepa valley, an area near the border, was not considered in the treaty. Meanwhile Peru viewed the treaty as fully enforceable and the Canepa valley as historically belonging to Peru, as per the division of the Viceroyalty. The conflict ended with Ecuador accepting the Peruvian claim. | South America |
| Chincha Island War | Spanish-South American War | 19th | 1864 | 1866 | The Chincha Islands War, also known as the Spanish-South American War, was a conflict between Spain, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Ecuador and Bolivia participated politically and denied supplies to the Spanish fleet. Spain wanted to regain influence over its former colonies and protect Spanish interests in South America. The South American countries sought to protect their sovereignty, have Spain recognise their independence, while also accusing Spain of wanting to appropriate the Chincha islands since they were rich in guano. | South America |
| War of the Confederation | Chilean-Confederation War | 19th | 26 December 1836 | March 1839 | The Confederation War, also known as the Chilean-Confederation War, was a conflict between Chile, Argentina, and Northern Peruvians against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Dissidents sought to dissolve the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation, since it threatened the independence of other American republics, and to depose Santa Cruz, president of Bolivia and creator of the confederation. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was as a short-lived state that sought to unite North and South Peru and Bolivia. | South America |
| Tarija War | | 20th | 19 May 1939 | 26 April 1939 | The Tarija War, also known as the War Between Argentina and Peru-Bolivian Confederation, was an armed conflict that occurred at the same time as the so-called Confederation War, which was between the Peru-Bolivian confederation and the Republic of Chile. Argentina sought to dissolve the Peru-Bolivian Confederation and control the territories of Tarija, Salta, and Jujuy. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation sought to prevent the Argentine Confederation from getting into the war they were waging with Chile. The outcome was that Bolivia claimed Tarija as its territory, while dropping its claims over Salta and Jujuy. | South America |
| Treaty of Paucarpata | | 20th | 17 November 1937 | | The Treaty of Paucarpata was a peace treaty that was signed in the Paucarpata District of the Arequipa Province in Peru. It was signed on 17 November 1937 by Peru and Chile in the context of the War of the Confederation. The treaty stipulated the withdrawal of the Chilean army from Peruvian lands and a commitment to not take up arms again against the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Subsequently, Chile rejected the treaty, arguing that the Chilean representatives who signed the treaty did not have the power to make peace, and the war continued. | South America |
| Gran Colombia-Peru War | | 19th | 3 June 1828 | 28 February 1829 | The Gran Colombia-Peru War was a territorial conflict between Gran Colombia and Peru that took place between 1828 and 1829. Gran Colombia claimed that the territories of Jaen and Maynas belonged to it under the Law of Territorial Division of the Republic of Colombia, whereas Peru maintained that these territories belonged to it according to the Royal Decree of 1802 and the self-determination of the people. The conflict ended with the signing of the Guayaquil Treaty. | South America |
| Treaty of Guayaquil | Larrea-Gual Treaty | 19th | 22 September 1829 | | The Treaty of Guayaquil, also known as the Larrea-Gual Treaty, was a peace and friendship treaty that sought to end the war between Gran Colombia and Peru. The treaty recognised that the border limits should remain the same between the viceroyalties of New Granada and Peru, and that small modifications could be made by mutual agreement. Gran Colombia recognised Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas as Peruvian territories, while Peru recognised Guayaquil as Gran-Colombian territory. Peru disregarded the treaty when Gran Colombia disintegrated, claiming that it was relieved of its commitment. | South America |
| Girón Treaty | Girón Agreement | 19th | 27 February 1829 | | The Treaty of Guayaquil, also known as the Larrea-Gual Treaty, was a peace and friendship treaty that sought to end the war between Gran Colombia and Peru. The treaty recognised that the border limits should remain the same between the viceroyalties of New Granada and Peru, and that small modifications could be made by mutual agreement. Gran Colombia recognised Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas as Peruvian territories, while Peru recognised Guayaquil as Gran-Colombian territory. Peru disregarded the treaty when Gran Colombia disintegrated, claiming that it was relieved of its commitment. | South America |
| Colombia-Peru War | Leticia War | 20th | 1 September 1932 | 24 May 1933 | The Colombia-Peru War, also known as the Leticia War, was a conflict between Peru and Colombia over territory in the Amazon rainforest. It was triggered by Peruvian dissatisfaction with the Salomón-Lozano Treaty and heavy tariffs on sugar. On 30 April 1933, Peruvian President Sánchez was shot dead. His successor, Óscar Benavides, met with the Colombian Liberal Party to secure an agreement to turn Leticia, a city next to the Amazon which Peru had seized with the support of the local population, over to a League of Nations commission. | South America |
| Puno Treaty | | 19th | 7 June 1842 | | The Treaty of Puno was a peace treaty between Peru and Bolivia seeking to end the Peruvian-Bolivian War. Signed on 7 June 1842, it recognised the sovereignty of both countries as separate nations, putting an end to attempts at creating a joint nation as proposed by the Bolivian-Peruvian Confederation. Peru wanted to prevent Bolivia from having territorial advantages, and Bolivia renounced compensation for war expenses and damages caused by the invasion. | South America |
| Pedemonte-Mosquera Protocol | | 19th | 11 August 1830 | | The Pedemonte-Mosquera Protocol was a treaty between Gran Colombia and Peru signed on 11 August 1830 in Lima, according to Ecuador and Colombia. The document is unknown to Peru, and Ecuador itself doubts its validity because when Gran Colombia signed, it had already disintegrated. The treaty supposedly determined that the limit between Ecuador and Peru was the Amazon River itself and granted Ecuador access to the river. | South America |
| Joint Statement of 15 February 1990 | | 20th | 15 February 1990 | | The Joint Statement of 15 February 1990 is a peace treaty by which Argentina and the United Kingdom restarted their diplomatic relations after the Falklands War in 1982. Issued at Madrid, both delegations expressed the desire of their governments to promote commercial and financial relations, agreeing to lift all remaining restrictions and restrictive practices imposed since 1982. | South America |
| Protocol of Friendship and Cooperation | | 20th | 24 May 1934 | | The Protocol of Friendship and Cooperation Between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Peru was a signed agreement that sought peace between the two countries and set territorial limits. Brazil participated as arbitrator and host country. The protocol ratified the Salomón-Lozano Treaty of 1922, which both countries promised not to modify. If there were subsequent contentions, they would resolve them through diplomatic channels and appoint a commission from Peru, Colombia, and Brazil to make the required delimitations. | South America |
| Argentine War of Independence | | 19th | 25 May 1810 | 22 December 1824 | The Argentine War of Independence War was a civil war between patriots and royalists of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. The patriots sought independence and the formation of American states, while the royalists wanted to remain part of the Spanish monarchy. The war ended with the victory of the patriots, which contributed to the fall of the Spanish Crown as well as to the independence of other Latin American countries. It left more than 13,000 dead. | South America |
| May Revolution | | 19th | 18 May 1810 | 25 May 1810 | The May Revolution was a municipal revolution promoted by a sector of Creole revolutionaries from Buenos Aires, who had received news of the French invasion of Spain. The Creoles demanded an open town hall so that the people could decide if they wanted to continue being governed by the Spanish Empire. Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros wanted to remain governor and defended the interests of the crown. When the open council was held, the Spanish viceroy was removed and a local government made up of seven Creoles and two Spanish people was formed. | South America |
| Bolivian War of Independence | | 19th | 1809 | 1825 | The Bolivian War of Independence began in 1809 with the establishment of the Government Juntas in Sucre and La Paz, after the Chuquisaca Revolution and La Paz Revolution. The cities quickly fell under Spanish control again. Antonio José de Sucre led the campaign that defeated the royalists, and Bolivian independence was finally proclaimed on 6 August 1825. | South America |
| Treaty of Bogotá | Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation | 19th | 9 July 1856 | | The Treaty of Bogotá, also known as the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Between New Granada and Ecuador, set out to maintain peace and establish commercial relations. With this treaty, the borders established in the Treaty of Pasto were undone, and those established in the Law of Territorial Division of the Republic of Colombia were established, regulating the political and administrative structure of Gran Colombia. | South America |
| Trujillo Armistice | | 19th | 25 and 26 November 1820 | | The Trujillo Armistice, was an agreement signed between Gran Colombia and the Spanish Empire. Both sides suspended all military operations in the territory of Trujillo, agreeing also to exchange prisoners and bury combatants. The armistice, however, was broken earlier than agreed. | South America |
| Muñoz-Vernaza Suárez Treaty | | 20th | 15 July 1916 | | Muñoz-Vernaza Suárez Treaty was an agreement signed by Colombia and Ecuador on 15 July 1916 to delimit the borders of both countries. Ecuador ceded to Colombia more than 180,000 square kilometres in its north-eastern region, corresponding to the tributaries of the Putumayo, Napo, and Caquetá rivers. Colombia went on to hand over parts of these territories to Peru in a secret treaty, which by Ecuador was considered a betrayal. | South America |
| Treaty of Pinsaqui | | 19th | 30 December 1863 | | The Treaty of Pisanqui sought to end the Ecuadorian-Colombian War and resume to the pre-war status quo. Under the Spanish Empire, the United States of Colombia (present-day Colombia and Panama) and the Republic of Ecuador had been part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Upon independence from Spain, they were then part of Gran Colombia, between 1819 and 1831. Due to unclear borders, this had led to many deadly disputes. | South America |
| Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II | | 18th | 4 November 1780 | 15 March 1783 | The Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II was an uprising by José Gabriel Túpac Amaru II, Quechas, Aymara, and Mestizos peoples against the Spanish Empire and marked the beginning of the emancipatory stage in Peru. TTúpac Amaru II rebelled against the abuses of the indigenous people committed by the Spanish corregidores, seeking the abolition of the corregimientos and the creation of a Royal Audience in Cusco for a rapid administration of justice. The Spanish Empire sought to end the rebellion and maintain the corregidores and its dominance over the indigenous populations. Although unsuccessful, Túpac Amaru II became an important figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and in the indigenous rights movement. | South America |
| Brazil War of Independence | | 19th | 18 February 1822 | 8 May 1824 | The Brazilian War of Independence was a conflict between the self-proclaimed Empire of Brazil and the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. The Brazilian Empire sought to free itself from Portuguese domination after the imposition of a Portuguese monopoly that did not benefit the Brazilians. For its part, the Kingdom of Portugal wanted to unify both Empires, establish the Portuguese commercial monopoly over products bought or sold by Brazilians, and divide Brazil into autonomous provinces that would be governed from Lisbon. It ended with the independence of the Brazilian Empire. | South America |
| Platine War | War Against Oribe and Rosas | 19th | 18 August 1851 | 3 February 1852 | The Platinum War was a conflict between the Argentine Confederation, Argentina, and an alliance formed by the Empire of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Entre Ríos. The war was caused by a dispute between Argentina and Brazil for influence over Uruguay and Paraguay, and the hegemony of the La Plata Region, now the La Plata Cuenca, which was politically unstable. When the war ended, conflict still continued in the region. | South America |
| Pemon Conflict | | 21st | Late 2018 | Ongoing | The Pemon conflict is an ongoing armed dispute between the Venezuelan government and the indigenous Pemon people who live in the Gran Sabana and Canaima National Park. The Venezuelan government claims that it is fighting against illegal mining and armed groups in that area, while the Pemons accuse the government of wanting to militarise the area to control its resources, creating projects without consultation and not allowing humanitarian aid to enter the indigenous community. | South America |
| British Invasions of the River Plate | | 19th | 1806 | 1807 | The British Invasions of the River Plate were two expeditions carried out by the British army to Buenos Aires and Montevideo, which were part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. The invasions were part of the Napoleonic Wars when Spain was an ally of France. The British army sought to seize Buenos Aires from Spain, eliminate the monopoly imposed by the Spanish Empire, and establish free trade in the area. The Spanish Empire fought to maintain its power in South America. The British Army faced merchants, civilians, and the army of the viceroyalty. The invasions ended with the surrender of the British troops. | South America |
| Paraguayan War | War of the Triple Alliance | 19th | 12 October 1864 | 1 March 1870 | The Paraguayan War, also known as the War of the Triple Alliance, was a conflict between a coalition consisting of the Brazilian Empire, Uruguay, and Argentina, against Paraguay. The coalition sought to overthrow the Paraguayan government and to seize certain Paraguayan territories. Paraguay sought to increase its military might and influence in South America. In 1870, the allied troops managed to take Asunción, which ended the war. The allies lost about 120,000 men, while Paraguay suffered 280,000 deaths, corresponding to more than half of its population. | South America |
| Treaty of the Triple Alliance | Paraguayan Extermination Pact | 19th | 1 May 1865 | | Treaty of the Triple Alliance, also known as the Paraguayan Extermination Pact, was an offensive and defensive treaty entered by Argentina, the Brazilian Empire, and Uruguay. The treaty sought to commit the three signatories to fighting together and resisting a truce with Paraguay unless all three parties agreed. It also sought to overthrow the Paraguayan president, Francisco Solano López, and to impose territorial limits causing Paraguay to lose territories. The treaty was signed in secret. | South America |
| Peruvian-Bolivian War of 1841-1842 | Second Peruvian IInvasion of Bolivia | 19th | 1 October 1841 | 7 June 1842 | Peruvian-Bolivian War of 1841-1842, also known as the Second Peruvian Invasion of Bolivia, was a territorial conflict between Peru and Bolivia as a consequence of the inaccuracy of their borders. Peru sought to take advantage of the political crisis that Bolivia was experiencing by annexing part of its territory. Bolivia, in turn, sought to occupy the Peruvian territories of Moquegua, Puno, and Tacna. It ended with the death of the president of Peru, the expulsion of Bolivian troops, and ultimately the signing of the Treaty of Puno. | South America |
| Polo-Bustamante Border Treaty | | 20th | 17 September 1909 | | The Polo-Bustamante Border Treaty was signed by Bolivia and Peru on 17 September 1909, putting an end to a border dispute between the two countries. Peru recognised Bolivian sovereignty over the Acre region, and Bolivia ceded to Peru 250,000 square kilometres located in the basin of the Madre de Dios River and Purus River in the Amazon, a zone rich in cinchona and Brazil nut. | South America |
| Treaty of Madrid | Treaty of Limits of the Conquests | 18th | 13 January 1750 | | The Treaty of Madrid, also known as the Treaty of Limits of the Conquests, was signed on 13 January 1750. It divided territories in South America between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire, with the objective of putting an end to armed conflict in South America between the two empires. The treaty was based on the Roman law of uti possidetis ita possideatis, that is, whoever owns in fact, must own in law. The Portuguese Empire secured most of what is now Brazil, while the Spanish Empire kept Colonia de Sacramento, located in present-day Uruguay. | South America |
| Operation Highjump | | 20th | 26 August 1946 | February 1947 | Operation Highjump, officially named the United States Navy Antarctic Developments Program, was a massive US Navy operation to set up the Antarctic research base called Little America. The United States sought to train naval personnel there, test equipment in icy conditions, develop techniques for establishing and maintaining air bases, increase knowledge of the area’s hydrographic, geographic, meteorological, geological, and electromagnetic conditions, and developing techniques for establishing and maintaining air bases on ice. In doing so, the ambition was also to establish US sovereignty in Antarctica. | Antarctica |
| Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1858-1860 | | 19th | 26 October 1858 | 25 January 1860 | Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1858-1860 was a conflict between Peru and Ecuador over the sovereignty of Peruvian territory in the Amazon. Ecuador sold these lands to British creditors to settle a debt. Peru maintained that the territories that Ecuador handed over to the British creditors did not belong to it, and that they were Peruvian as according to the Royal Decree of 1802. Ecuador maintained that they were unexploited and vacant territories, flatly refusing to suspend the agreement with the British creditors. It ended with the nullity of the delivery of Peruvian territories to the British creditors. | South America |
| Treaty of Mapasingue | Franco-Castilla Treaty | 19th | 25 January 1860 | | The Treaty of Mapasingue, also known as the Franco-Castilla Treaty, sought to end ongoing armed conflict between Peru and Ecuador. Ecuador recognised the limits indicated in the Royal Decree of 1802, accepting Peruvian sovereignty over territories which Ecuador had otherwise intended to cede to British creditors in lieu of debt payment. Peru ceded the territories of Mapasingue, Torneo, and Buijo, which was occupied by its army. The treaty did not have validity since it was signed by Guillermo Franco Herrera, the self-proclaimed president of Ecuador. | South America |
| Ecuadorian Civil War of 1913-1916 | Concha Revolution | 20th | 24 September 1913 | 8 September 1916 | The Ecuadorian Civil War of 1913-1916, also known as the Concha Revolution, was a civil conflict in Ecuador named after Colonel Carlos Concha Torres, who led and funded the revolution. His army of the Esmeraldas Province, who belonged to the liberal party, rose up against the rule of Leónidas Plaza. They sought to overthrow the government for the assassination of the former President, Eloy Alfaro. Ecuadorian Blacks contributed significantly to the military effort, forming the bulk of Alfaro’s army. The government was eventually able to re-assert control, although much of the province was destroyed in the process. | South America |
| Antarctic Treaty | | 20th | 1 December 1959 | | The Antarctic Treaty is an agreement between 12 countries, namely Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The objective of the treaty is to recognise that it is in the interest of all humanity that Antarctica continues to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that it does not become the scene or object of international discord. It also recognises the freedom of scientific research and cooperation for that purpose, prohibiting the establishment of military bases and the testing of weapons of war. | Antarctica |
| Velarde-Río Branco Treaty | | 20th | 8 September 1909 | | The Velarde-Río Branco Treaty was a boundary, trade, and navigation treaty between Brazil and Peru. It sought to establish definitive limits between the two countries to avoid going to war. The treaty completed the demarcation initiated by a fluvial convention in 1851 and established free navigation in the Amazon for Peru, while Peru ceded areas in the Yaravi river basin to Brazil. | South America |
| Cisplatine War | Argentine-Brazilian War | 19th | 10 December 1825 | 27 August 1828 | The Cisplatine War, also known as the Argentine-Brazilian War, was an armed conflict between the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and the Empire of Brazil, over the possession of territories that are part of present-day Uruguay. The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata sought to recover the Cisplatina Province and incorporate it into the United Provinces. The Empire of Brazil was looking to put an end to the rebellion in Cisplatina to regain control of the region. Following the war, Cisplatina became independent as Uruguay. | South America |
| Preliminary Peace Convention | Treaty of Montevideo | 19th | 27 August 1828 | | The Preliminary Peace Convention, also known as the Montevideo Treaty, was signed between the Empire of Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata with the United Kingdom as a mediator. The treaty marked the end of the Cisplatine War, and through it, both countries recognised the independence of the Cisplatina Province, present-day Uruguay, while also pledging to defend and protect its independence. It was also agreed that both countries would examine the constitution of the new state to ascertain whether it contained any articles that opposed the security of their respective states. | South America |
| Lobster War | | 20th | 1961 | 1963 | The Lobster War was a conflict between Brazil and France over lobster fishing in Brazilian waters without a permit. Brazil sought to defend its sovereignty and protect its fishermen, refusing France permission to fish for lobster 100 miles off Brazil’s northeast coast, as lobsters walk along the bottom of the continental shelf. France maintained that lobsters swim in the open sea and can be caught by any fishing vessel from any country. When Brazil extended its territorial waters to a 200-mile zone, it unilaterally ended the conflict. | South America |
| Mapuche Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 19 June 1905 | Ongoing | The Mapuche Conflict is an ongoing conflict between Chile, Argentina, and indigenous Mapuche communities in Southern Chile and Argentina. The conflict has resulted in dispossession of Mapuche land by colonial and subsequent governments. The Mapuches seek to be recognised as an autonomous community and oppose the usufruct that permits activities that degrade the soil and rivers. Casualties are estimated to be in the thousands, including members of the Mapuche community and the Chilean police. | South America |
| Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1941 | War of ’41 | 20th | 7 July 1941 | 31 July 1941 | The Ecuadorian-Peruvian War, also known as the War of ’41, was an armed border conflict fought between Peru and Ecuador. According to Peru, Ecuadorian troops invaded Peruvian territory, which started a battle that spread throughout the area known as Quebrada Seca. Ecuador alleged that Peru took incidents between border patrols as a pretext to invade Ecuador and force them to sign a border agreement. The conflict ended with the Rio Treaty of 1942, where Ecuador renounced its claim to a sovereign outlet to the Amazon River. | South America |
| Uruguayan Civil War | Guerra Grande | 19th | 21 March 1839 | 8 October 1851 | The Uruguayan Civil War, also known as the Great War, was a series of armed conflicts that took place between the Colorado Party and the National Party. Both sides received foreign backing, the former from the neighbouring Empire of Brazil as well as from imperial powers, primarily the British Empire and the Kingdom of France, but also a legion of Italian volunteers that included Giuseppe Garibaldi, the latter from the Argentine Confederation. The National Party sought to defend sovereignty and have Manuel Oribe as president. They accused the Unitarians of being at the service of foreign interests. The Unitarians claimed that they were looking for a government of progress together with their foreign allies. | South America |
| Bagua Masacre | Baguazo | 21st | 5 June 2009 | 5 June 2009 | The Bagua Massacre, also known as the Baguazo, was a conflict between the Peruvian government and the Aguaruna inhabitants that took place near the town of El Reposo, close to the cities of Bagua and Bagua Grande, in the Amazonas region. The Peruvian government wanted to evict the Aguaruna, Huambisa, and other indigenous communities who had been protesting and blocking the Fernando Belaúnde Terry highway for 55 days, causing shortages of fuel, gas, and food. The indigenous communities requested the repeal of decrees that promoted free trade between Peru and the United States on indigenous lands without respecting Agreement 169, in which the government had previously promised to consult the indigenous communities. | South America |
| Rincón Bomba Massacre | Pilagá Massacre | 20th | 10 October 1947 | 1 November 1947 | Rincón Bomba Massacre, also known as the Pilagá Massacre, was a conflict between the indigenous people of Pilagá and the Argentine government in the present-day La Formosa province. The people of Pilagá protested against a sugar company paying only half of what was agreed and firing people when they complained. The ex-workers settled in the area of La Bomba. According to the Argentine government, it wanted to relocate the workers and avoid an indigenous uprising. It resulted in the killing of more than 500 indigenous people with thousands of unarmed people injured, including children, women, and elderly. | South America |
| Invasion of Trinidad | Capture of Trinidad | 18th | 18 February 1797 | | The Invasion of Trinidad, also known as the Capture of Trinidad, was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain over possession of the island of Trinidad. Spain wanted to keep its colony, but did not have the strength to do so, and surrendered. Britain wanted to retaliate against Spain, which had signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso, agreeing to become an ally of France in the Anglo-French war. It also sought to take control of more areas in the Caribbean that had become major exporters of sugar. It ended with Britain taking control of the island. | South America |
| Putumayo Genocide | Rubber Holocaust | 19th, 20th | 1879 | 1912 | The Putumayo Genocide was the period of slavery and massacres of indigenous communities by the Peruvian Amazon Company in the Putumayo territory located between Peru and Colombia. The company forced the indigenous people to work in rubber exploitation, branding them with the company’s initials, in addition to beating, mutilating, or murdering them if they refused to work. Many indigenous people died from punishment, disease, abuse, and hunger. This genocide was documented in the ’blue book’ published in 1912. | South America |
| Treaty of Amiens | Peace of Amiens | 19th | 25 March 1802 | | The Treaty of Amiens, also called the Peace of Amiens, is a peace agreement that ended the conflict between, on the one side, Great Britain and Ireland, and on the other, the French Republic and its allies Spain and the Batavian Republic (present-day Netherlands). In addition to peace, they agreed that Great Britain would return Dutch Guiana to the Batavian Republic, and that the Araguari River would be established as the border between French Guiana and Portuguese Guiana (present-day Amapá, Brazil). Spain ceded the dual-island of Trinidad and Tobago to Great Britain in exchange for Menorca. | South America |
| Iquicha War of 1839 | | 19th | March 1839 | November 1839 | Iquicha War of 1839 was a conflict between the Restoring United Army of Peru and the indigenous peasants of Huanta, Peru, led by Antonio Huachaca. The army, which allied itself with Chile, sought to break up the Bolivian-Peruvian Confederation. The peasants of Iquicha supported the Confederation and the decentralisation of power to the coastal towns. The war ended with the defeat of the Iquicha people and the signing of the Yanallay Treaty. | South America |
| Federalist Riograndense Revolution | Federalist Revolt of 1893 | 19th | 1893 | 1895 | The Federalist Revolution of Rio Grande, also called the Federalist Revolt of 1893, was a conflict between the newly formed United States of Brazil and the Federalists with the help of the Blanco party of Uruguay in Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil. The Federalists wanted autonomy for Río Grande and decentralisation of the newly created state. Contrarily, the central government wanted to stop the revolt and avoid giving political power to the Federalists. It ended with the defeat of the rebels, and resulted in the deaths of approximately 10,000 people. | South America |
| Napalpí Massacre | | 20th | 19 July 1924 | | The Napalpí Massacre was a conflict between, on the one side, the Qom and Moqoit peoples of the Chaco territory, and on the other, the Argentine government. The Argentine government wanted the indigenous to be the workforce of the landowners in the area. The Qom and Moqoit communities did not accept the conditions under which they were forced to work, and as a form of protest, they took refuge in the nearby mountains, asking for better living conditions. More than 400 people were killed. The federal justice of Chaco has recognized this act as a crime against humanity. | South America |
| Uruguayan War | War Against Aguirre | 19th | 10 August 1864 | 20 February 1865 | The Uruguayan War, also known as the War Against Aguirre, was the armed intervention of the Brazilian Empire into Uruguayan lands during the civil war in this country between the White Party and the Colorado Party. According to the Empire of Brazil, it sought to pacify the situation in Uruguay following the internal conflict between the two parties, and to protect Brazilian citizens residing in the Oriental Republic of Uruguay. Uruguay sought to defend its sovereignty by resisting the invasion of the neighbouring country. | South America |
| British-Brazilian Treaty of 1826 | | 19th | 23 November 1826 | | British-Brazilian Treaty of 1826 was an agreement between the United Kingdom and the Brazilian Empire that sought to abolish the slave trade. Brazil agreed with the United Kingdom to ban the slave trade as a condition of its support towards the recognition of Brazilian independence. However, when Brazil did not comply with the treaty, the United Kingdom authorised the capture of Brazilian ships continuing operate with slaves. | South America |
| Chiriguano War | | 19th | 7 January 1892 | March 1892 | The Chiriguano War was a conflict between the Republic of Bolivia and the Chiriguano indigenous community. The Chiriguano sought to end the abuses they received from settlers and to protect their lands. Bolivia sought to end the indigenous uprising and to occupy the Guaraní territories. The war ended with the execution of the Chiriguano leader and the near-disappearance of the community, as many people were killed and others emigrated to the sandy areas of Chaco, where they subsist unfavourably to this day. | South America |
| Amapá Question | Franco-Brazilian Dispute | 19th | 15 May 1895 | | The Amapá Question, also known as the Franco-Brazilian Dispute, was a conflict between Brazil and France over the sovereignty of the territory north of Amapá and northeast of Pará. France claimed that these territories were part of French Guiana and sought to protect French businessmen and residents who were engaged in mining activities there, and who were being expelled by the Brazilian people. Brazil claimed that these territories belonged to Brazil by the will of the people, who were mostly Brazilians, and who had been the first inhabitants of the territory. | South America |
| Ragamuffin War | Ragamuffin Revolution | 19th | 20 September 1835 | 1 March 1845 | The Ragamuffin War, also known as the Ragamuffin Revolution, was a civil uprising in southern Brazil that began with the gauchos’ revolt over the imposition of high taxes. Those who revolted against the imperial government were called Ragamuffins, in Portuguese, Farroupilhas or Farrapos. They sought independence from the Empire of Brazil, and during this period, created the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul. The Brazilian government sought to disintegrate the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul and prevent further rebellions within the empire. The war ended with the Green Poncho Treaty, which dissolved the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul. | South America |
| Green Poncho Treaty | | 19th | 1 March 1845 | | The Treaty of Poncho Verde was a peace agreement between the Ragamuffins, in Portuguese, Farroupilhas or Farrapos, and the Empire of Brazil. With the treaty, which ended the Ragamuffin War, the Ragamuffins obtained the right to elect the president of the province, the guarantee of their private property, and the release of the enslaved people who had supported the rebellion. For its part, the Empire of Brazil managed to put an end to the rebellion, ensuring the disintegration of the Republic of Rio Grande do Sul. | South America |
| Surinamese Interior War | Suriname Guerrilla War | 20th | 1986 | 1992 | The Surinamese Civil War, also known as the Suriname Guerrilla War, was a conflict between the Jungle Commando guerrilla group and the Surinamese government as led by the army chief and de facto head of state, Dési Bouterse. The Jungle Commando, whose members were of Maroon ethnicity, called for democratic reforms, civil rights, and economic development for the country’s Maroon minority. The war ended with a peace agreement signed in 1992, and Dési Bouterse taking responsibility for the execution of women and children as well as the burning of the Maroon village of Moiwana. | South America |
| Arauco War | | 16th, 17th | 1536 | 1656 | The Arauco War was a long-running conflict between the Araucanían people, comprising Mapuche, Picunche, and Huilliche indigenous communities, and the Spanish Empire. It occurred in various stages, with periods of peace in-between. The indigenous communities sought to protect their lands, their community, and their freedom, in the face of the Spanish Empire seeking to occupy their lands, force them into a colonial system of slavery, and subsequently to evangelise them. | South America |
| Guarani War | | 18th | 1753 | 1756 | The Guarani War was a series of armed conflicts between a Spanish-Portuguese military force and a group of Guarani people resisting Spanish cession of their lands to the Portuguese. In 1750, a treaty was signed that transferred the Portuguese settlement of Colonia to Spain, in exchange for a large area of Spanish territory east of the Uruguay River. However, seven Guarani Jesuit missions were based within this territory, and they rejected that their lands be transferred to the Portuguese. To resist, they organised a military defence under a corregidor named Sepé Tiarayú, but it was not enough. Many Guarani people fled into the jungles and swamps where they lived in isolation. | South America |
| Chimor-Inca War | | 15th | 1470 | Date unknown | The Chimor-Inca War was a conflict between the Inca Empire and the Chimor Empire in present-day Peru. The Inca Empire sought to extend its territories, while the Chimor Empire sought to defend itself from the Inca invasion. Ultimately, the Chimor Empire was reduced to its capital of Chan Chan and the Moche Valley, which came under indirect rule of the Inca Empire. | South America |
| Beagle Conflict | | 20th | 1904 | 29 November 1984 | The Beagle Conflict was a dispute between Argentine and Chile over the sovereignty of the Picton, Nueva, and Lennox islands south of the Beagle Channel. Both countries signed a boundary treaty in 1881 maintaining that the islands in the Atlantic Ocean belonged to Argentina, and those in the Pacific Ocean to Chile. However, the border between the two oceans was not clear. The conflict began in 1904, with the first official Argentine claims over the islands that had always been under Chilean control. The conflict was eventually resolved in 1984 through papal mediation, with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed at the Vatican. Since then, Argentina has recognised the islands as Chilean territory. | South America |
| 1883 Chilean-Spanish Treaty | Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1985 | 20th | 29 November 1984 | | The 1883 Chilean-Spanish Treaty, also known as reaty of Peace and Friendship Between the Republic of Chile and Spain, was an agreement between the two countries following the state of war that had existed between both states since the Chincha Islands War of 1865-1879. The treaty set out to resume friendly relations, establishing diplomatic ties between the two parties and committing to solid and inviolable peace. | South America |
| Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire | Conquest of Peru | 16th | 1532 | 1572 | The Spanish Conquest of the Inca Empire, also known as the Conquest of Peru, was a period of expeditions and battles between the Spanish Empire and the Inca Empire (called Tahuantinsuyu or Tawantinsuyu in Quechua). The Spanish Empire sought to increase its wealth, expand the Spanish Empire, and evangelize through colonisation. The Inca Empire wanted to protect itself from the invaders, already weakened by the diseases brought into their communities by the Spanish. The conflict with the capture and assassination of Sapa Inca Atahualpa, marking the beginning of the Viceroyalty of Peru. | South America |
| War of Canudos | Canudos Campaign | 19th | 7 November 1896 | 5 October 1897 | The War of Canudos, also known as the Canudos Campaign, was a conflict between the Brazilian government and the Canudos inhabitants belonging to a religious group led by Antônio Conselheiro. Brazil had just been formed as a republic and wanted to repress the popular uprisings that were taking place across different communities. The government accused the Canudos of being monarchists wanting to end the republic. The Canudos were predominantly peasants who fought a so-called holy war for the survival and salvation of their souls. It ended with the complete disappearance of the Canudos people. | South America |
| Brasilia Presidential Act | Fujimori-Mahuad Treaty | 20th | 26 October 1998 | | The Brasilia Presidential Act was a peace agreement that settled the border conflict between Peru and Ecuador concerning the disputed Oriente region. Both countries agreed to ratify the Protocol of Rio de Janeiro of 1942 while deciding on 78 kilometres of border that had remained ambiguous given the terms used, and which had led to further war. | South America |
| Treaty of Piquiza | | 19th | 6 July 1828 | | The Treaty of Piquiza was a peace treaty signed between Peru and Bolivia on 6 July 1828 after the military intervention of Peru into Bolivian territories. Peru agreed to withdraw its troops, while Bolivia agreed to the resignation of President Antonio José de Sucre, the appointment of a provisional government, and the promulgation of the new constitution. | South America |
| 1828 Peruvian-Bolivian War | 1828 Peruvian Intervention in Bolivia | 19th | 1 May 1828 | 8 September 1828 | The 1828 Peruvian-Bolivian War, also known as the 1828 Peruvian Intervention in Bolivia, was a military intervention of the Peruvian Army in Bolivia. Peru sought to force the departure of the troops belonging to Gran Colombia from Bolivian territory, and to make the Bolivian president resign. This invasion ended with the Treaty of Piquiza and was one of the causes of the Gran Colombian-Peruvian War. | South America |
| Portuguese Conquest of the Banda Oriental | War Against Artigas | 19th | 28 August 1816 | 22 January 1820 | The Portuguese Conquest of the Banda Oriental, also known as the War Against Artigas, was an armed conflict between the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarve on one side, and the Federal League, an alliance of provinces in what is now Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil on the other. The former wanted to possess the domain of the Banda Oriental that granted them river access that could enable further expansion, while the Federal League sought to establish a Federal State that would achieve the independence of the Banda Oriental. The conflict resulted in the annexation of the Banda Oriental to the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarve. | South America |
| Portuguese Invasion of the Banda Oriental | | 19th | 23 July 1811 | September 1812 | The Portuguese Invasion of the Banda Oriental was a conflict between Portugal and the revolutionaries of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Portugal made a failed attempt to annex the remaining territory of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, in present-day Uruguay. The revolutionaries, on their side, sought to become independent from the Spanish Empire. It ended with Buenos Aires, capital of the United Provinces, accepting the government of Francisco Javier de Elío, who had been sent by the Spanish Empire to govern. Part of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata did not agree with the decision and considered it a betrayal. | South America |
| Herrera-Rademaker Treaty | | 19th | 26 May 1812 | | The Herrera-Rademaker Treaty was a peace agreement between the Triumvirate of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and the Portuguese Empire signed on 26 May 1812. The agreement put an end to Portugal’s intervention in the Banda Oriental. The Portuguese agreed to the withdrawal of their troops from the Río de la Plata area. For the United Provinces, the deal was a victory, since they feared that the Portuguese Empire would want to extend its domains and keep the Banda Oriental, which was the name of the territories east of the Uruguay River and north of Río de la Plata that comprise the present-day nation of Uruguay. | South America |
| Maynas War of Independence | Maynas War | 19th | 28 July 1821 | 23 September 1822 | The Maynas War of Independence, also known as the Maynas War, was a conflict between the Spanish Empire and the royalists against the patriots and the indigenous people of the Amazon in the Maynas Province, present-day Peru. The patriots and indigenous people wanted to get rid of Spanish rule and continue with the Liberating Expedition that was already taking place in southern Peru. The royalists wanted to continue ruling Maynas and disintegrate the liberating army. The conflict ended with the independence of Maynas, owing to the uprising of the rural population. | South America |
| Paraná War | Anglo-French Blockade of the Río de la Plata | 19th | 2 August 1845 | 31 August 1850 | The Paraná War was a conflict between the British Empire and France on one side, and the Argentine Confederation on the other. The British Empire and France wanted to defeat the Argentine Confederation through a commercial blockade of the ports of the Río de la Plata. This was in response to the Great War of Uruguay, which they considered a direct attack on the independence of Uruguay, and which harmed their commercial relations. In the view of the Argentine Confederation, the British Empire and France sought to obtain free navigation of the Paraná River. The conflict ended with the withdrawal of the British and French ships. | South America |
| Arana-Southern Treaty | | 19th | 24 November 1849 | | The Arana-Sur Treaty is an agreement between the British Empire and the Argentine Confederation signed on 24 November 1849 and ratified on 15 May 1850. The treaty followed the British and French blockade of the ports of the Río de la Plata, restoring friendly relations between the two parties. The British Empire recognised the Argentine Confederation’s full sovereignty over its interior rivers, promised not to intervene in conflicts between the Confederation and Uruguay, returned captured Argentine ships, and vacate Martín García Island. The Argentine Confederation confirmed that the existing differences between the two were concluded. | South America |
| Arana-Lepredour Treaty | | 19th | 31 August 1850 | | The Arana-Lepredour Treaty was an agreement between France and the Argentine Confederation following the blockade of the ports of the Río de la Plata. This treaty restored friendly relations between the two parties. France agreed to lift the blockade it had imposed on the ports of Buenos Aires, return Argentine ships, and vacate Martín García Island. Further, France recognised the Paraná River as part of the Confederation and the Uruguay River as part of the Eastern State. For its part, Argentina undertook to end hostilities against the Montevideo government. | South America |
| Tapihue Treaty | | 19th | 7 January 1825 | | The Tapihue Treaty is an agreement between Chile and the Mapuche people. Chile recognised the political sovereignty of the Mapuche people and prohibited Chileans from inhabiting the area controlled by the indigenous people, and the Mapuches undertook to collaborate with the Chilean government in the persecution of foreigners in their territory. The treaty established the Bio Bio river as the border between the two. | South America |
| Pando-Noboa Treaty | | 19th | 12 July 1832 | | The Pando-Noboa Treaty was an agreement between the newly formed Republic of Ecuador and the Republic of Peru, signed on 12 July 1832. In this treaty, both countries agreed to recognise and respect the current borders. Peru recognised Quito, Azuay, and Guayaquil as Ecuadorian sovereignty, while Ecuador recognized Tumbes, Jaén, and Maynas as Peruvian territories. However, these areas would enter into dispute again years later. | South America |
| 1881 Chilean-Spanish Treaty | | 19th | 12 June 1883 | | 1883 Chilean-Spanish Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Peace and Friendship Between the Republic of Chile and Spain, was an agreement between the two countries following the state of war that had existed between both states since the Chincha Islands War of 1865-1879. The treaty set out to resume friendly relations, establishing diplomatic ties between the two parties and committing to solid and inviolable peace. | South America |
| Treaty of Paris of 1879 | | 19th | 14 August 1879 | | The Treaty of Paris of 1879 was a bilateral peace and friendship agreement between Spain and Peru. Spain recognised Peru as an independent country, and diplomatic relations were established between the two following the Chincha Islands War. The treaty proposed the appointment of diplomatic representatives for both countries, permanent friendship, commitment to trade, and civil rights for Spanish citizens in Peru and vice versa. | South America |
| Venezuelan War of Independence | | 19th | 1811 | 1823 | The Venezuelan War of Independence took place between 1811-1823, when independence movements to sever ties from the Spanish Empire were being fought across Latin America. Venezuela sought to free itself of the restrictions and abuses imposed by the Spanish Crown. On 5 July 1811, seven of the ten provinces of the Captaincy General of Venezuela declared their independence, however, the First Republic of Venezuela was lost in 1812 following the Caracas earthquake and the Battle of La Victoria. As part of Simón Bolívar’s campaign to liberate New Granada, which took place over several years, Venezuela eventually achieved lasting independence from Spain, though first as part of Gran Colombia. | South America |
| Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty | | 19th | 12 December 1846 | | The Mallarino-Bidlack Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Navigation and Commerce, was an agreement of cooperation between New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama) and the United States. With this treaty, the economic, social, and political relations between the United States and New Granada formally began. The United States was granted transit through the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and its citizens would pay the same toll for their merchandise as citizens of New Granada. The treaty also permitted the United States to use military powers to suppress independence struggles targeted against Colombia. The United States guaranteed to New Granada the rights of sovereignty and property. | South America |
| Baltimore Crisis | | 19th | 16 October 1891 | February 1892 | The Baltimore Crisis was a conflict between Chile and the United States over a fight between United States sailors from the cruise ship USS Baltimore and Chilean sailors that left two United States Navy sailors dead by stabbing. The United States held that the Chilean sailors had premeditated an attack on United States Navy sailors, demanding financial compensation and an official apology, whereas Chile insisted it had been a simple fight between sailors. Nevertheless, the conflict ended with Chile apologising and giving financial compensation to the United States for threats of war. The incident took place in a time of increasing American influence in the Pacific Coast region of Latin America. | South America |
| War in Chile Chico | | 20th | 1 May 1918 | August 1918 | The War in Chile Chico was an armed conflict between the inhabitants of the southern shore of Lake Buenos Aires and the Chilean police. Early settlers alleged that since 1914 they had petitioned for the Chilean government to recognize their rights to the lands which they had already been occupying. Carlos Von Flack, a businessman, claimed that these lands belonged to him because he had been leasing them from the government. In the end, the Chilean government annulled the contract with the businessman and returned the lands to the residents. | South America |
| Watermelon Riot | Panama Riot | 19th | 15 April 1856 | 10 September 1857 | The Watermelon Riot, also known as the Panama Riot, was a civil riot between residents of the federal state of Panama in New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama) and United States civilians. New Granada alleged that the incident had been started by a United States citizen who drunkenly grabbed a slice of watermelon, refusing to pay for it. The United States claimed that the citizen had been robbed and that the New Granadan government was unable to control the situation. It ended with the Herrán-Cass Treaty where New Granada accepted responsibility in face of the United States’ threat of invasion. | South America |
| Herrán-Cass Treaty | | 19th | 10 September 1857 | | The Herrán-Cass Treaty was an agreement between New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama) and the United States following the Watermelon Slice Incident of 1856. New Granada accepted responsibility for the incident and agreed to pay compensation in gold to the United States for the riot, new claims, commission expenses, and interests. | South America |
| USS Lexington Attack | Lexington Incident | 19th | 31 December 1831 | | USS Lexington Attack, also known as the Lexington Incident, was a conflict between the United States and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata over the looting of Puerto Soledad on the Falkland Islands by the United States. The United States claimed that three of its fishing vessels had been improperly seized as they could fish without a permit, demanding financial reparations for the affected vessels. The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata accused the United States for violating fishing laws, insisting that they had the right to confiscate the vessels. | South America |
| Conquest of the Desert | | 19th | 11 October 1878 | 18 October 1885 | The Conquest of the Desert was a military campaign carried out by Argentina to occupy territories of the Pampa, Ranquel, Mapuche, and Tehuelche peoples. Argentina wanted to extend its southern territories while maintaining sovereignty over the territories it had inherited from the Spanish Empire. Some historians view the campaign as genocide of indigenous people, while others describe it as a civilising mission. | South America |
| Vivanco-Pareja Treaty | | 19th | 27 January 1865 | | The Vivanco-Pareja Treaty was signed between Peru and Spain on 27 January 1865 following the Spanish occupation of the Chincha Islands. Peru paid a compensation to Spain for the expenses caused by the conflict. Spain agreed to return the occupied Peruvian islands. After the treaty, the Spanish fleet continued to be present off the Peruvian coast, the Peruvian president was removed for accepting the terms of the agreement, and the treaty was ultimately declared void. Later, Peru, along with other South American countries, declared war on Spain. | South America |
| Pernambucan Revolt | Priest’s Revolution | 19th | 6 March 1817 | 20 May 1817 | The Pernambucan Revolution, also known as the Priest’s Revolution, was an uprising in the province of Pernambuco against the Portuguese colonial government. The rebels sought to form an independent republic in response to the fall in the price of sugar that had led the North-eastern population into a serious economic crisis. The Portuguese Empire sought to end the revolt and prevent further revolts within the colony. The conflict ended with the victory of the Portuguese Empire and the execution of the leaders of this separatist movement. | South America |
| Bahian Conspiracy | Revolt of the Tailors | 20th | 2 December 1904 | 3 December 1904 | The Bahian Conspiracy, also known as the Revolt of the Tailors, was a rebellion that occurred in the Captaincy of Bahia, Brazil. The rebels sought the independence of Bahia, the abolition of slavery, and to help its poorest sectors. The government of Bahia sought to suppress the rebellion and catch the rebel leaders, whom it considered traitors. It ended with the repression of the rebels, some of whom were slaves, barbers, tailors, embroiderers, and small merchants, and the execution of their leaders. | South America |
| Contestado War | Contestado Rebellion | 20th | 12 October 1912 | 16 August 1916 | The Contestado War, also known as the Contestado Rebellion, was a civil conflict between followers of a messianic movement and the Brazilian government. The religious movement requested the return of their lands that had been expropriated for the construction of a railway that passed through the Contestado region near the states of Santa Catarina and Paraná. The Brazilian government sought to remove the group from the territory, bringing an end to conflicts in both states. It ended with the disintegration of the religious group. | South America |
| Iguape War of 1904 | | 20th | 13 March 1904 | 15 March 1904 | The Iguape War of 1904 was a conflict between the Spanish Empire and the Portuguese Empire in the Captaincy of São Vicente, present-day São Paulo, Brazil. The Portuguese sought to officially establish the colonisation of Brazil by confirming the power of the Portuguese Crown in those lands and forcing the Spanish to leave the region. The Spanish Empire intended to keep the territory, which according to them belonged to Kingdom of Castile. Ultimately, the Spanish were forced to withdraw. | South America |
| Revolution of the Morrocoyes | La Cosiata | 19th | 30 April 1826 | December 1826 | The Revolution of the Morrocoyes, also known as La Cosiata, was a political revolt that broke out in broke out in Valencia, Venezuela. The members of the separatist movement La Cosiata demanded their economic and legal independence from Gran Colombia. They wanted Caracas to be the capital of the nascent republic rather than Bogotá. Simón Bolívar, president of Gran Colombia, sought to avoid the autonomy of Venezuela and to impose a centralist government. The revolt in Valencia is considered the main cause of the subsequent dissolution of Gran Colombia. | South America |
| German Antarctic Expedition | Schwabenland Expedition | 20th | 17 December 1938 | 11 April 1939 | The German Antarctic Expedition, also known as the Schwabenland-Expedition, was a Nazi-German expedition seeking to claim an area now known as Dronning Maud Land, which had previously been explored by Norway, who claimed it after learning about the German expedition. Germany’s goal was to create blubber production from raw materials such as whale oil, thereby avoiding relying on Norwegian blubber imports. The surveyed land was claimed by Germany in August 1939 as ‘Neuschwabenland’, named after MS Schwabenland. The German claim was subsequently abandoned in 1945. | Antarctica |
| Hope Bay Incident | | 20th | 1 February 1952 | | The Hope Bay Incident was an armed conflict between the United Kingdom and Argentina that took place in Antarctica. Argentina accused the British of wanting to build a new base in Antarctica when they started to unload material without consulting them. The British maintained that they already had a base there and that they wanted to rebuild it as it had been destroyed by fire. The incident ended with the withdrawal of the British, who later returned and built their base in a new position away from Argentina. | Antarctica |
| Deception Island Incident | Raid on Deception Island | 19th | 15 February 1853 | | The Deception Island Incident, also known as the Raid on Deception Island, was a conflict between the United Kingdom and Argentina that took place on 15 February 1953. Argentina built a facility where two Argentine soldiers lived, claiming to be in Argentine territory. The United Kingdom accused Argentina of invading their territory and arrested the two soldiers for not having a permit. It ended with the British destroying the Argentine safe haven. The two governments subsequently agreed not to interfere in each other’s bases. | Antarctica |
| Operation Tabarin | | 20th | 1943 | 1946 | Operation Tabarin was a secret United Kingdom expedition to Antarctica during World War II. The principal objective was to reinforce British claims to sovereignty of the Falkland Island Dependencies, establishing bases and carrying out administrative activities. Part of the mission was to prevent the Nazi-German government from setting up bases in Antarctica. Since the outbreak of the war, Argentina and Chile had also made claims to the Dependencies. | Antarctica |
| Muisca War | Spanish Conquest of the Muiscas | 16th | 1537 | 1540 | The Muisca War, also known as the Spanish Conquest of the Muiscas, was a conflict between the Muisca people, who inhabited the Tenza and Ubaque valleys and the Cundiboyacense highlands in what is now Colombia, on the one side, and the Spanish Empire on the other. The Muiscas sought to protect their lands and the Spanish were searching for gold, seeking also to continue their occupation of those territories. The conflict ended with the victory of the Spanish Empire. | South America |
| Battle of La Pedrera | | 20th | 10 July 1911 | 12 July 1911 | The Battle of La Pedrera was a territorial conflict between Peru and Colombia on the border between the two countries by the Caquetá River. According to Colombia, the conflict was due to the fact that Peruvian troops invaded the Colombian territory where they had settled. According to the Peruvians, the Colombian army had occupied Peruvian territories for some time and, despite having been warned, did not leave. The battle ended with Peruvian victory and the expulsion of the Colombian army. | South America |
| Tezanos Pinto-Olaya Herrera Agreement | Status Quo Agreement | 20th | 19 July 1911 | | The Tezanos Pinto-Olaya Herrera Agreement, also known as the Status Quo Agreement, was a peace agreement between Peru and Colombia signed at Bogotá on 19 July 1911. In this agreement, Colombia undertook not to increase the contingent located in Puerto Córdoba, nor to attack the Peruvian positions between Putumayo and Caquetá, while the Peruvian troops were to leave La Pedrera. | South America |
| Boundary Treaty of 1881 | | 19th | 29 July 1881 | | The Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina sought to resolve the boundary dispute between the two countries over the territories of Patagonia, the Strait of Magellan, and the islands south of it. The treaty indicated the precise boundaries along their common border and was signed during the Pacific War. Chile has alleged that it was forced to sign because of Argentina’s threat to support Peru and Bolivia in the war and that with this treaty, they lost their territory in Patagonia. For Argentina, Patagonia was never Chilean. | South America |
| Conquest of Chiloé | Chiloé Campaign | 19th | 1820 | 1826 | The Conquest of Chiloé, also known as the Chiloé Campaign, was a series of military confrontations between royalists and Chilean patriots over control of the Chiloé archipelago. The patriots sought to annex the archipelago to the new nation of Chile, since they considered it a danger to the independence of Chile to have that territory occupied by the royalists. The royalists wanted to continue with the social, legal, and religious system that they already knew, and continue under the rule of the Spanish Empire. It ended with the victory of the patriots and the Treaty of Tantauco. | South America |
| Treaty of Tantauco | | 19th | 19 January 1826 | | The Treaty of Tantauco was a peace agreement signed on 19 January 1826 between the Spanish Empire and Chile, effectively incorporating the Chiloé archipelago into Chilean territory. The treaty established that the inhabitants of Chiloé would become Chileans, with all the rights and obligations that this implied, and that their goods and properties would be respected. They were required to surrender their weapons, ammunition, and badges. Both sides agreed to release their prisoners of war. | South America |
| Insurrection of Pernambuco | War of Divine Light | 17th | 13 June 1645 | 1654 | The Insurrection of Pernambuco, also known as the War of Divine Light, was a conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands over the north-eastern territories of Brazil. The Dutch sought to continue governing this territory and obtain more income from the sale of sugar, increasing taxes for the Luso-Brazilian captaincies. The Portuguese wanted to expel the Dutch over taxes and the spread of Protestantism. The conflict ended with the expulsion of the Dutch and the total dominance of the Portuguese over Brazil. | South America |
| Capture of Salvador | Capture of Bahia | 20th | 8 May 1924 | | The Capture of Salvador, also known as the Capture of Bahia, was a conflict between the Iberian Union, made up of the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and the Dutch West India Company. The Dutch sought to trade sugar as well as slaves through Salvador, in present-day Brazil, while the Iberian Union also wanted dominance in the commercialisation of sugar and to avoid the Dutch occupation. The conflict ended with the creation of the ‘New Holland’ in Brazil, but the Dutch were ultimately expelled in 1925 by a Spanish-Portuguese expedition. | South America |
| Beckham Revolt | | 17th | 1684 | 1685 | The Beckham Revolt was a conflict between the Iberian Union, formed by the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and inhabitants of São Luís in Brazil over the colonial administration in that area. Two settlers sought to challenge the commercial monopoly of the Compañía de Comercio de Maranhão over buying and selling goods produced locally, and also to enslave two indigenous people, which was prevented by the Jesuits of Companhia de Jesus. | South America |
| War of the Emboabas | Fight for Gold | 18th | 1707 | 1709 | The War of the Emboabas, also known as the Fight for Gold, was a conflict between two generations of Portuguese settlers in the Captaincy of São Vicente in Brazil. The Bandeirantes, or simply Paulistas, wanted to have the exclusive right to exploit the gold mines of São Paulo, since they had discovered them, while the Emboabas wanted to expel the Paulistas to fully exploit the mines for themselves. The conflict ended with the expulsion of the Paulistas, after which the Portuguese Crown began to collect taxes for the extraction of gold. | South America |
| War of the Mascates | Buhoneros War | 18th | 1710 | 1711 | War of the Mascates, also known as the Buhoneros War, was a conflict between the Portuguese merchants of Recife and the landowners of Olinda, over the political and economic dominance of the Captaincy of Pernambuco in Brazil. The landowners did not agree with the independence of Recife as they were in a strong economic crisis and it was an important source of tax collection for Olinda. The Recife merchants, on the other hand, wanted to defend their political autonomy against Olinda. The war ended with the victory of Recife, which soon became the administrative headquarters of the captaincy. | South America |
| Balaida | | 19th | 1838 | 1841 | The Balaida was a rural uprising in the Brazilian provinces of Maranhão and Piauí. On one side were the cowboys, slaves, and other disadvantaged groups, against the Brazilian Empire. The rebels demanded improved living conditions due to the misery in which they lived as compared with landowners in the region. The government sought to pacify the rebels and end the revolt. The conflict ended with the execution of the leaders of the social movement. | South America |
| Loizaga-Cotegipe Treaty | | 19th | 9 January 1872 | | The Loizaga-Cotegipe Treaty was an agreement between Paraguay and the Brazilian Empire signed on 9 January 1872. The treaty ended the territorial dispute between the two countries that was the cause of the Triple Alliance War. Paraguay handed over to Brazil all the territories north of the Apa River, committing itself to a war indemnity and allowing the Brazilian army to remain in its territory. For its part, Brazil granted the line of the Igurey River to Paraguay, which did not mean great territorial losses. | South America |
| Vila Rica Revolt | Vila Rica Sedition | 18th | 28 June 1720 | 19 July 1720 | Vila Rica Revolt, also known as the Vila Rica Sedition, was a conflict between the inhabitants of Villa Rica in Brazil and the Portuguese Empire that took place between 28 June and 19 July 1720. The rebels, led by Filipe dos Santos, demanded the reduction of commercial taxes, the dissolution of the foundry houses that served to increase the taxes on gold, and the abolition of the commercial monopoly. The Portuguese claimed that they wanted to combat illegal trade and tax evasion. The conflict ended with the execution of Filipe dos Santos. | South America |
| First French Invasion | | 16th | 1 November 1555 | 17 March 1560 | The First French Invasion was a conflict between the Portuguese Empire and the Kingdom of France taking place in Brazil. France sought to establish colonies, avoid Portuguese and Spanish rule in the South America, and find refuge for the Huguenots, who were fleeing religious persecution. The Portuguese sought to expel the French and undo France Antarctique, the French colony that had gained control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The conflict ended with the expulsion of the French, and the Portuguese founded São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro, present-day Rio de Janeiro. | South America |
| War of the Tamoios | Uruçumirin Battle | 16th | 20 January 1567 | February 1567 | The War of the Tamoios, also known as the Battle of Uruçuminim, was a conflict between the Portuguese Empire against the indigenous people of the Tamoios Confederation who were joined by the French. The Tamoios Confederation sought to end the evangelisation of the Jesuits, the slavery of the indigenous people, and remove the Portuguese from their indigenous lands. The French wanted to strengthen their empire by colonising the coasts of the Portuguese colony. The Portuguese sought to expel the French and to preserve and extend their dominance in that area. The war ended with the expulsion of the French. | South America |
| War of Cabo Frio | Tamoios Massacre | 16th | 27 August 1575 | 22 September 1575 | The War of Cabo Frio, also known as the Tamoios Massacre, was a conflict between the Tamoio indigenous people and the French resistance on the one side against the Portuguese Empire on the other. It took place in Cabo Frio, the promontory on Brazil’s southeast Atlantic coast. The Portuguese Empire sought to end the resistance, which they accused of smuggling and attacking Portuguese sugar cane plantations. The Tamoio people fought to avoid their captivity, expulsion, and extermination. However, the war ended with the death, enslavement, and ultimately the disappearance of the Tamoios people. | South America |
| Capture of Recife | Lancaster’s Pernambucan Expedition | 16th | 30 March 1595 | April 1595 | The Capture of Recife, also known as Lancaster’s Pernambuco Expedition, was a conflict between the Iberian Union, made up of the Portuguese and Spanish empires, and the British Empire. It took place in the zone of the Captaincy of Pernambuco in Brazil. The British Empire wanted to capture the city and the port of Recife, as part of the Anglo-Spanish War, and to take its merchandise, such as wood and sugar. James Lancaster, who led the English expedition, left Recife taking several ships full of merchandise. | South America |
| Battle of Guaxenduba | | 17th | 19 November 1614 | 19 November 1614 | The Battle of Guaxenduba was a military conflict that took place on 19 November 1614 in the city of Icatu in the state of Maranhão, Brazil, between the Iberian Union, formed by the Portuguese and Spanish empires, and the Kingdom of France. The Iberian Union sought to destroy the French colony named France Équinoxiale, expel the French, and secure their dominance over the Amazon. The French wanted to protect their colony and extend their rule along the northern coast and in the Amazon, evangelising the indigenous people. The battle ended with the expulsion of the French from Maranhão. | South America |
| Conquest of Cayenne | Portuguese Conquest of French Guiana | 19th | 6 January 1809 | 14 January 1809 | The Conquest of Cayenne, also known as the Portuguese Conquest of French Guiana, was a Anglo-Portuguese-Brazilian military operation against Cayenne, capital of the French South American colony of French Guiana, that took place in 1809. The attack was part of a series of operations during the Napoleonic Wars that sought to take away French control. The conflict ended with French surrender, followed by Portuguese rule which lasted until 1817. | South America |
| Treaty of Rio de Janeiro | Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1825 | 19th | 29 August 1825 | | The Treaty of Rio de Janeiro was an agreement between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Empire of Brazil signed on 29 August 1825. The treaty, which was mediated by the British government and entered into force on 15 November 1825 upon the exchange of ratification documents, sought to end the War of Independence of Brazil (1822-1824). With it, Portugal recognised Brazil as an independent nation. Brazil agreed not to accept the proposal of any Portuguese colonies to join it, as well as to respect the property of the Portuguese in Brazil. Both agreed to peace, friendship, and to restore commercial relations. | South America |
| Caldas Corvette Crisis | | 20th | 9 August 1987 | 18 August 1987 | The Caldas Corvette Crisis was a diplomatic impasse between Venezuela and Colombia, due to a corvette from the Colombian Navy entering the waters of the Gulf of Venezuela. Colombia maintained that that part of the Gulf also belonged to Colombia, calling it the Gulf of Coquivacoa. According to Columbia, they had tried to negotiate with Venezuela to create a maritime border, but Venezuela had refused and taken complete control of the area. According to Venezuela, Colombia had no claim to the gulf. | South America |
| Colombia-Venezuela Boundary Treaty of 1941 | | 20th | 5 April 1941 | | The Colombia-Venezuela Boundary Treaty of 1941, was an agreement between Colombia and Venezuela that put an end to the border conflict between the two countries that had lasted for more than 50 years. With the treaty, both countries recognised the full demarcation of their borders, granting almost total sovereignty to Colombia over the territories of the Guajira Peninsula, the northernmost peninsula in South America. Venezuela recovered the Sarare River basin, the Rómulo Gallegos Municipality, Yavita in the Amazon, and the eastern slope of the Serranía del Perijá. Colombia was permitted access to the Orinoco River. | South America |
| Michelena-Pombo Treaty | | 19th | 14 December 1833 | | The Michelena-Pombo Treaty was an agreement between Venezuela and New Granada signed on 14 December 1933 at Bogotá. The treaty sought to establish an alliance of friendship, to regulate trade and navigation between the two countries, mark the limits between them, and to redistribute the debt of Gran Colombia after its dissolution and formation of Venezuela and New Granada as independent states. Although the Neogranadino Congress immediately accepted the treaty, the Venezuelan Congress did not approve it, since it entailed losing part of Venezuelan territory. | South America |
| Geneva Agreement of 1966 | | 20th | 17 February 1966 | | The Geneva Agreement of 1966 was a treaty between Venezuela, the United Kingdom, and its then-colony, British Guiana. The agreement established the steps to start a process of searching for solutions to the conflict over the sovereignty of Guayana Esequiba. With the treaty, the United Kingdom recognised Venezuela’s claim to declare null and void the 1899 Paris Arbitration Award that defined the border between Venezuela and British Guiana. Both parties agreed to the formation of a so-called Mixed Commission to seek peaceful and satisfactory solutions for both countries within a period of four years. | South America |
| Protocol of Port of Spain | | 20th | 18 June 1970 | | The Protocol of Port of Spain was an agreement between Venezuela, Guyana and the United Kingdom signed at Port of Spain on 18 June 1970. Following the expiration of the Mixed Commission, which was established by the Geneva Agreement of 1966, the signatories declared a moratorium of 12 years, during which both governments would promote cooperation and understanding while the border claim concerning Guayana Esequiba was in abeyance. The Parliament of Venezuela was sharply critical of the protocol, and Venezuelan maps produced since 1970 indicated the eastern bank of the Essequibo as Venezuelan territory. When the agreement expired in 1983, Venezuela did not wish to extend it. In 2018, as the claim was remained unresolved, the UN referred the case to the International Court of Justice in The Hague. | South America |
| Ankoko Island Invasion | Anacoco Island Crisis | 20th, 21st | 12 October 1966 | Ongoing | The Ankoko Island Invasion, also known as the Anacoco Island Crisis, is a territorial conflict between Venezuela and Guyana within the territory of Guayana Esequiba where the boundaries between the two countries have not yet been defined. According to Guyana, Venezuela invaded its territory not respecting the Geneva Agreement of 1966. According to Venezuela, the island has always belonged to them, and is not part of the disputed territory between the two countries. | South America |
| Rupununi Uprising | | 20th | 2 January 1969 | 5 January 1969 | The Rupununi Uprising was a revolt against the government of Prime Minister Forbes Burnham that took place shortly after Guyana’s independence from Great Britain. The rebels, inhabitants of the Rupununi District in Guayana Esequiba, sought their own independence by creating a Rupununi Government Provisional Committee, as they considered some policies of Guyana’s central government to be despotic. The Guyanese government accused Venezuela of encouraging separatists with weapons and money, and denounced it to the UN. Venezuela denied it. The Guyana Defence Force ultimately put an end to the rebellion. | South America |
| Berbice Slave Uprising | | 18th | 23 February 1763 | 15 April 1764 | The Berbice Slave Uprising was a revolt by enslaved people on plantations located in Berbice, present-day Guyana, against the Dutch colony. The rebels sought to end the harsh working conditions and proposed dividing the colony in half, with the self-emancipated claiming the southern part of the colony and the Dutch keeping the northern part. The conflict ended with the intervention of French and British colonies who helped the Dutch suppress the uprising, fearing the success of the revolt. | South America |
| Treaty of Arbitration | Treaty of Washington | 19th | 2 February 1897 | | The Treaty of Arbitration, also known as the Treaty of Washington, was an agreement between the United Kingdom and Venezuela over the territory of Essequibo and Guayana Esequiba, which Britain claimed as part of British Guiana (present-day Guyana),and which Venezuela viewed as Venezuelan territory. The two parties agreed to submit the border dispute to an international arbitration tribunal, which included the United States, Russia, Italy, Sweden, and Switzerland. The arbitration process took several years with the court issuing its final decision in 1899, placing the disputed territory of the Essequibo region under British control. Venezuela rejected the court’s decision. | South America |
| Independence of Guyana | | 20th | 1966 | 26 May 1966 | The Independence of Guyana was a political and diplomatic process led by Guyana’s nationalist and anti-colonial movements seeking independence from Britain. Cheddi Jagan and Forbes Burnham, members of the People’s Progressive Party, mobilised the population through organised protests calling for independence and the formation of a socialist State. Britain wanted to calm the independence movements and protests to preserve its colony. Guyana formally achieved its independence from Britain on 26 May 1966. More than 200 individuals were killed in clashes during the conflict. | South America |
| 1969 Curaçao Uprising | Trinta di Mei | 20th | 30 May 1969 | 1 June 1969 | The 1969 Curaçao Uprising, also known as Trinta di Mei, meaning Thirtieth of May in Papiamentu, was a series of riots on the Caribbean Island of Curaçao, then part of the Netherlands Antilles, a semi-independent country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The riots were initiated by workers at the Shell refinery and anti-colonial activists against the local government in denouncement of being kept as a colony under the status of a semi-independent country, since Curaçao remained part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In addition, they protested against discrimination, racism, and labour abuses carried out by the Shell refinery. The local government and other citizens, mainly white, had agreed to continue under Dutch control since, according to them, it benefited the island economically. The uprising put an end to white political and administrative dominance, leading to the rise of a new Black political elite. | South America |
| Dutch-Venezuelan Crisis of 1908 | | 20th | 26 November 1908 | 23 December 1908 | The Dutch-Venezuelan Crisis of 1908 was a dispute between the Netherlands and President of Venezuela, Cipriano Castro, which took place on the Dutch-Caribbean island Curaçao. Venezuela registered Dutch ships and applied tariff measures on them, which hurt Dutch trade. Venezuela alleged that the Dutch had sent their government negative reports on the situation in Venezuela that were published in the press. When Venezuela expelled the Dutch ambassador, it prompted the dispatch of three warships that intercepted Venezuelan ships. The dispute ended with a coup d’etat that removed Castro from power. | South America |
| Aimoré War | | 16th, 17th | 1555 | 1673 | The Aimoré War was a conflict between Portuguese colonizers and indigenous people in the territories of Bahia and Espírito Santo in Brazil. The colonizers wanted to enslave the Aimoré people, occupy their territories, and extract gold, silver, and other precious metals found in that area. The inhabitants of the Aimoré community wanted to protect their territories in the northeastern state of Bahia, and were ultimately victorious. | South America |
| Act of Montevideo | | 20th | 8 January 1979 | | The Act of Montevideo of 1979 was signed between Argentina and Chile to defuse the conflict over the Beagle Channel. This was done at the request of the pope. Both countries pledged not to use force, to refrain from taking measures that would disturb the harmony between the two, to withdraw troops from the conflict zone, and to ultimately find a peaceful solution. | South America |
| Desert Lagoon Incident | Desert Lagoon Battle | 20th | 6 November 1965 | 13 October 1995 | The Desert Lagoon Incident, also known as the Desert Lagoon Battle, was a conflict between Argentina and Chile over an area of 481 square metres of desert. Argentina maintained that the border must be an orographic border traced by the summits of the mountain range, while Chile held that the continental division of the Americas must be followed to delimit the border. The conflict ended in 1994, after an arbitral tribunal ruled in favour of Argentina. | South America |
| Pacts of May | | 20th | 28 May 1902 | | The Pacts of May are four protocols signed between Chile and Argentina that sought to end border conflicts and consolidate the friendship between the two countries. Both countries renounced territorial expansions, except those resulting from compliance with existing treaties. They also agreed to submit to arbitration disputes that cannot be resolved through direct negotiation, as well as not to buy naval weapons for five years. | South America |
| Santa Cruz Auxiliary Expedition | Quito Campaign | 19th | 1820 | 1822 | The Santa Cruz Auxiliary Expedition, also known as the Quito Campaign, was a conflict between the independence army and the Spanish Empire. The independence troops sought to liberate the province of Quito from the Spanish viceroyalty and strengthen and secure Guayaquil, which had recently become independent. The army of the royalists sought to maintain the Spanish viceroyalty and avoid the extension of the independent army to other viceroyalties in South America. It ended with the liberation of Quito. | South America |
| Peruvian Civil War of 1834 | Bermúdez Revolution | 19th | 3 January 1834 | May 1834 | The Peruvian Civil War of 1834, also known as the Bermúdez Revolution, was a revolt by supporters of the former president, Agustín Gamarra, against the government. They wanted Pedro Pablo Bermúdez to replace President Luis José de Orbegoso, who was elected by the National Convention. The conflict ended with the victory of Orbegoso and the defeat of the revolutionaries, since the citizens agreed that Orbegoso assume his presidency. | South America |
| Bolivian Invasion of Peru | Pacification of Peru | 19th | 1835 | 1836 | The Bolivian Invasion of Peru, also known as the Pacification of Peru, took place while civil war was ongoing in Peru. The president of Bolivia, Andrés Santa Cruz, supported the faction of former president Luis José de Orbegoso that was against the now-established government of Felipe Santiago Salaverry. Bolivia and Orbegoso sought to ultimately make Peru and Bolivia a single state. Salaverry wanted to remain in power and was opposed to the unification of Peru and Bolivia. In the end, Salaverry was shot, and Santa Cruz and Orbegoso created the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. | South America |
| Occupation of Bocas del Toro | Colombian Usurpation | 19th | 1836 | | The Occupation of Bocas del Toro, also known as the Colombian Usurpation, was a border conflict between the Federal Republic of Central America, made up of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, and the Republic of New Granada (present-day Colombia and Panama) over the Bocas del Toro region. Allegedly in order to prevent continued English expansion, New Granada took over the territory of Bocas del Toro, which belonged to Costa Rica. While several border treaties were subsequently attempted, they were never ratified by both sides. | South America |
| Selk’nam Genocide | Ona Genocide | 19th, 20th | 1880 | 1910 | The Selk’nam Genocide, also known as the Ona Genocide, was the genocide of the Selk’nam indigenous people in present-day Tierra del Fuego. British, Argentine, and Chilean settlers sought to extract minerals, expand their livestock companies, and eliminate the guanacos. The Selk’nam people wanted to defend their lands, prevent the killing of guanacos, and avenge the deaths and rapes of their people. It ended with the near-disappearance of the Selk’nam people. | South America |
| Preliminary Peace Convention of 1823 | | 19th | 4 July 1823 | | The Preliminary Peace Convention of 1823 was an agreement between the Spanish Empire and the government of the Province of Buenos Aires, which claimed the right to diplomatically represent the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, signed on 4 July 1823. The agreement sought to end the Spanish-American wars of independence. With it, the Spanish Crown agreed to cease hostilities for a period of 18 months. However, the agreement was subsequently annulled by the Spanish king. | South America |
| Naval Blockade of Venezuela | | 20th | 22 December 1902 | 13 February 1903 | The Naval blockade of Venezuela was a conflict between Venezuela and the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy in which these three countries blocked the Venezuelan coasts. The three countries demanded the payment of debts contracted by Venezuela with compatriot companies, while Venezuela viewed the blockade as illegal and in violation of its sovereignty. The blockade was eventually lifted after the signing of the Washington Protocol, giving rise to the Roosevelt Corollary, which established that the United States would intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries if in the event of any flagrant violations. | South America |
| Arena Massacre | Arena Uprising | 17th, 18th | 1 December 1699 | 14 January 1700 | The Arena Massacre, also known as the Arena Uprising, was a conflict that took place on 1 December 1699 at the mission of San Francisco de los Arenales in Trinidad. Roman Catholic priests wanted the Amerindians to work faster on rebuilding his church. The Amerindians revolted to put an end to their mistreatment and torture, ultimately killing the priests. The Spanish government intervened, their forces killing hundreds of the Amerindians. | South America |
| Jahaji Massacre | Hosay Riots | 19th | 30 October 1884 | | The Jahaji Massacre, also known as the Hosay Riots, was a confrontation between the British colonial authorities and Muslim and Hindu labourers in Trinidad. The labourers made a peaceful procession to commemorate a religious date but were denied to pass through towns. The British authorities wanted to stop demonstrations among the Hindu population who did not agree with the rate of pay for labour. Forces proceeded to fire on the people in the procession, leaving several dead and many more injured. | South America |
| Potiguara War | | 16th | 1574 | 1599 | The Potiguara War was a conflict between the Portuguese colonisers and the Potiguara indigenous community that inhabited Maranhão and Paraíba in northern Brazil. The settlers wanted to install hereditary captaincies that would help them occupy those lands. The Potiguara allied with the French to destroy the Portuguese fortress and prevent them from settling on their land. The conflict ended with the victory of the Portuguese, who allied themselves with the Tabajara people, helped also by a smallpox epidemic that killed many of the Potiguara community. | South America |
| Tapuia Uprising | Barbarians’ War | 17th | 1651 | 1704 | The Tapuia uprising, also known as the Barbarians’ War, was a conflict between Portuguese colonisers and the Tapuia indigenous people in Brazil. The Portuguese wanted to expand their domains in Brazil by ceding territory belonging to the Tapuia people to the combatants of the Pernambuco War. In addition, they were looking for more land for the exploitation of sugar cane and livestock. The Tapuias sought to expel the Portuguese from their lands after the death of one of their leaders, and to prevent evangelisation. | South America |
| Mandu Ladino Revolt | | 18th | 1712 | 1719 | The Mandu Ladino Revolt was an uprising by Tupi people led by Mandu Ladino against Portuguese farmers in the Piauí area of Brazil. The indigenous people sought to stop the extension of the Portuguese occupation, since the Portuguese had installed several farms that caused the expulsion of indigenous communities. Portuguese peasants wanted to establish haciendas for cattle trade and leather production there as a decree from 1701 prohibited cattle ranching near the coast. The conflict ended with the death of Mandu Ladino. | South America |
| Manaus War | | 18th | 1723 | 1728 | The Manaus War was a conflict between Portuguese colonisers and the Mura indigenous people of Manaus, led by their leader Ajuricaba. The indigenous people wanted to prevent the colonisers from invading the Amazon, avenge the death of Ajuricaba’s son, and capture the indigenous allies of the Portuguese. The Portuguese wanted to start what they called ’the just war’ by attacking the indigenous people who did not want to be evangelised. It ended with the death of Ajuricaba. | South America |
| Mura War | | 18th | 1723 | 1730 | The Mura War was a conflict between the Mura people and Portuguese-Brazilian traders on the Madeira River, Brazil. The merchants sought to establish themselves on the Madeira River, which would enable access to other regions. To achieve this, they set out to destroy the Mura villages. They also accused the Muras of ambushing them and preventing communication, colonisation, and trade. The Muras wanted to prevent the Portuguese from passing through the Madeira River and protect themselves from being invaded. | South America |
| Treaty of Belgrade | Belgrade Peace | 18th | 18 September 1739 | | The Treaty of Belgrade, also known as the Belgrade Peace, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and the Habsburg Monarchy, following the Austro-Turkish War of 1737-1739 and the Russo-Turkish war of 1735-1739. Signed on 18 September 1739 at Belgrade, the settlement effectively ended the Kingdom of Serbia, which had existed since 1718, as that territory, amongst others, was ceded by the Habsburgs to the Ottomans. | Europe |
| Treaty of Niš | | 18th | 3 October 1739 | | The Treaty of Niš was a peace agreement between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire signed on 17 October 1676 in the town of Żurawno. The treaty marked the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739. Under its terms, Russia renounced its claims to Crimea and other territories in present-day Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine, while retaining the right to a port at Azov on the Don River. | Europe |
| Treaty of Żurawno | | 17th | 17 October 1676 | | The Treaty of Żurawno was a peace settlement between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, following the final stage of the Polish-Ottoman War that had lasted 1672-1676. The agreement revised the earlier Treaty of Buchach, removing the obligation on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire. It also granted the Lipka Tatars, a Turkic ethnic group, personal autonomy to choose which of the two signatories they chose to serve. | Europe |
| Treaty of Buchach | Treaty of Buczacz | 17th | 18 October 1672 | | The Treaty of Buchach, also known as the Treaty of Buczacz, provided the terms of peace between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, following the first phase of the Polish-Ottoman War. Under the terms of the treaty, certain territories were ceded to the Ottomans, whilst others were recognized as Cossack territory to be administered under an Ottoman protectorate. The Commonwealth was obliged to pay the Empire 22,000 thaler as annual tribute. | Europe |
| Locarno Treaties | Pact of Locarno | 20th | 1 December 1925 | | The Locarno Treaties, also known as the Pact of Locarno, set out to guarantee peace between present-day Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy. The agreement indicated the inviolability of the frontiers established in the Treaty of Versailles, and Great Britain and Italy agreed to intervene defensively against any military invasion of the borders. The Rhineland was demilitarised, and international dispute resolution procedures were agreed upon. | Europe |
| Treaty of Adrianople | Treaty of Edirne | 18th | 24 June 1713 | | The Treaty of Adrianople, also known as the Treaty of Edirne, provided the terms of peace between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire, affirming the 1711 Treaty of the Pruth. Since this 1711 treaty, the pro-war movement in Constantinople had gained popularity in the Ottoman Empire and the peace therefore needed to be reaffirmed in the form of a second treaty two years later. This 1713 Treaty of Adrianople maintained peace for the following 25 years. | Europe |
| Treaty of the Pruth | Prut Treaty | 18th | 23 July 1711 | | The Treaty of the Pruth, also known as the Prut Treaty, provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Russian, ending the Russo-Turkish War. The treaty meant significant political and territorial gains for the Ottomans, including the return of the Azov Fortress, the demotion of several newly constructed Russian fortresses, and the Tsar’s guarantee to stop interfering in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth affairs. Lastly, the agreement granted King Charles XII safe passage on his return to Sweden. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zaragoza | Capitulation of Zaragoza | 16th | 22 April 1529 | | The Treaty of Zaragoza, also known as the Capitulation of Zaragoza, established peace between Castile and Portugal. The treaty was designed to prevent clashes between the signatory powers over control the lucrative Spice Islands (now Indonesia’s Malukus). The issue had been ongoing since 1520, when expeditions from both kingdoms reached the Pacific Ocean. The treaty laid down borders between the two, with Portugal paying for having the Maluku Islands within its domain, but included a clause which stated that the agreement would be undone if at any time the Habsburg emperor Charles V wished to revoke it. | Europe |
| Treaty of Badajoz I | Peace of Badajoz I | 19th | 6 June 1801 | | The Treaty of Badajoz I, also known as the Peace of Badajoz I, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided peace between Portugal and Spain, and Portugal and France, respectively. Under the terms of the Spanish-Portuguese treaty, Portugal ceded the border town of Olivenza and Almeida to Spain, while also closing its ports to British ships. | Europe |
| Treaty of Badajoz II | Peace of Badajoz II | 19th | 6 June 1801 | | The Treaty of Badajoz II, also known as the Peace of Badajoz II, was the second of two treaties of the same name that provided peace between Portugal and Spain, and Portugal and France, respectively. Under the terms of the Franco-Portuguese treaty, the border of existing French territory in South America was expanded to include parts of northern Brazil, representing significant territorial gains for France. The treaty also closed Portuguese ports to British ships, provided access for the import of French woollen goods, which was Portugal‘s main import from Britain, and a secret clause guaranteed indemnity payments to France. | Europe |
| 1918 Treaty of Bucharest | | 20th | 7 May 1918 | | The 1918 Treaty of Bucharest established peace between Romania and the Central Powers, following the 1917 Romanian Campaign during the First World War. All signatories agreed to resume diplomatic and consular relations, and provisions were made for the demobilisation of Romanian forces. Austria-Hungary was given control over the Carpathian Mountain passes, while Romanian oil wells were to be leased to Germany for a period of 90 years. | Europe |
| 1812 Treaty of Bucharest | | 19th | 28 May 1812 | | The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest provided the terms of peace between Russia and the Ottoman Empire following the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia was permitted to annex territory in present-day Moldova and Ukraine, while being required to cede Wallachia in present-day Romania and parts of Russian-occupied Moldova. The treaty also granted autonomy to the Serbs, who had been rebelling against the Ottoman Empire, although this was not realised in practice. | Europe |
| Treaty of Evoramonte | Concession of Evoramonte | 19th | 26 May 1834 | | The Treaty of Evoramonte, also known as the Concession of Evoramonte, set out to establish peace between the Portuguese Constitutionalists and supporters of King Miguel I, also called the Miguelites, ending the 1828-1834 civil war in Portugal. Under the terms of the Treaty, a general amnesty for all political crimes was extended, military officers could retain properly-obtained ranks, King Miguel I was exiled from the Kingdom of Portugal, and any military support for him was to be disbanded. | Europe |
| Treaty of Tartu, Finland-Russia | Treaty of Dorpat | 20th | 14 October 1920 | | The Treaty of Tartu, Finland-Russia, also known as the Treaty of Dorpat, was one of two treaties of the same name providing the terms of peace between Russia and Finland, and Russia and Estonia, respectively. The Finnish-Russian treaty confirmed the Finnish-Soviet Russian border following the 1918 Finnish Civil War, and Finland was granted the harbour of Petsamo. North Ingria was conceded to Russia, and the outer islands in the Finnish Gulf were demilitarised. | Europe |
| Treaty of Tartu, Estonia-Russia | | 20th | 2 February 1920 | | The Treaty of Tartu, Estonia-Russia, also known as the Treaty of Dorpat, was one of two treaties of the same name providing the terms of peace between Russia and Finland, and Russia and Estonia, respectively. The Estonian-Russian Treaty ended the Estonian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Estonia’s eastern border was confirmed, Soviet Russia recognised the independence of Estonia, and diplomatic relations were established between the two states. The treaty was the first to recognise the Soviet government. | Europe |
| 1861-1862 Montenegrin-Ottoman War | | 19th | 1861 | 31 August 1862 | The 1861-1862 Montenegrin-Ottoman War was a conflict between the Principality of Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire, following an uprising by Montenegrins in Herzegovina against Ottoman suzerainty. The start date of the conflict is unclear, but the war ended with the Convention of Scutari on 31 August 1862. | Europe |
| Convention of Scutari | | 19th | 31 August 1862 | | The Convention of Scutari provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Principality of Montenegro. The terms of the treaty were fairly generous to the Montenegrin Principality, with the aim of reducing the possibility of any further unrest. Under the terms of the treaty, Montenegro was recognised as an Ottoman vassal state, and a weapons import ban was placed on it. | Europe |
| Second Balkan War | | 20th | 29 June 1913 | 10 August 1913 | The Second Balkan War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Bulgaria on the one side, and Greece, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire, on the other. Following the First Balkan War, the King of Bulgaria felt that Bulgaria had not gained the territories it was owed, especially that retained by Serbia. In staking these claims, Bulgaria was seen to be disregarding earlier peace agreements between the Balkan League states, thus alienating itself from previous allies. | Europe |
| 1913 Treaty of Bucharest | | 20th | 10 August 1913 | | The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest provided the terms of peace between Romania, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria following the Second Balkan War. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro made different degrees of territorial gain, while Bulgaria agreed to disband its fortresses in specific regions. Bulgaria was, however, also granted part of Macedonia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople | Treaty of Istanbul | 20th | 29 September 1913 | | The Treaty of Constantinople, also known as the Treaty of Istanbul, established peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria following the Second Balkan War. The treaty worked alongside the Treaty of Bucharest, which made peace arrangements between Bulgaria and the other opposing forces during the Second Balkan War. Under the terms of the treaty, Adrianople was conceded to the Ottomans, prisoners of war were released on both sides, and border armies were to be demobilised. | Europe |
| Cretan Revolt | Great Cretan Revolution | 19th | 21 August 1866 | 20 January 1869 | The Cretan Revolt, also known as the Great Cretan Revolution, was a conflict between Cretan rebels and the Ottoman imperial rulers of Crete. The rebellion was sparked largely out of resentment at what was considered to be a failure to implement civil and religious equality between Cretan Christians and Muslims, the imposition of new taxes, and the interference of the Crete ruler Hekim Ismail Pasha in what was considered to be a matter for the council of elders. | Europe |
| Third Italian War of Independence | | 19th | 20 June 1866 | 12 August 1866 | The Third War of Italian Independence was a conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire. Italy had been in a military alliance with Prussia since April 1866 and thus when Prussia attacked Austrian allies, Italy offered its military support and declared war on Austria. Doing so also offered Italy the opportunity to take present-day Veneto, Friuli, and the city of Mantua, which it was ultimately successful in doing. | Europe |
| 1866 Peace of Prague | 1866 Treaty of Prague | 19th | 23 August 1866 | | The 1866 Peace of Prague, also known as the 1866 Treaty of Prague, provided the terms of peace between the Austrian Empire and Prussia following the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Under the terms of the treaty, Prussia was recognised as the major power in northern Germany and as the leader of the new North German Confederation. Germany annexed a number of territories, and Austria was made to pay war indemnity of 40 million thaler. | Europe |
| Serbian-Ottoman Wars | Serbian Wars for Independence | 19th | 30 June 1876 | 5 February 1878 | The Serbian-Ottoman Wars, also known as the Serbian Wars for Independence, were two related conflicts fought between 1876-1878 between the Principality of Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. The conflicts were both caused by calls for an independent Serbia. Both phases were concluded by 5 February 1878, although different sources offer alternative dates depending on whether the wars are described as a single overall conflict or two distinct wars. | Europe |
| Fenian Rising | Éirí Amach na bhFíníní | 19th | 5 March 1867 | 6 March 1867 | The Fenian Rising, also known as Éirí Amach na bhFíníní, was a rebellion by Irish nationalists, led by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, against British rule in Ireland. The cause of the conflict was broadly the ongoing agitation for self-rule in Ireland, but was sparked by the suppression of the Irish People newspaper in September 1865, which had been a major channel for broadcasting Fenian nationalist politics, and the arrest of four major Fenian leaders. | Europe |
| 1878 Treaty of Berlin | | 19th | 13 July 1878 | | The Treaty of Berlin, also known as the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, provided the terms of peace between these parties following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The agreement was drawn up to replace the Treaty of San Stefano, which had caused an international crisis out of concerns amongst European powers that it might allow for Russian imperial expansion. | Europe |
| April Uprising | Bulgarian Uprising | 19th | April 1876 | | The April Uprising, also known as the Bulgarian Uprising, was a conflict between Bulgarians and the Ottoman Empire. What began as a small revolution in Herzegovina against Ottoman rule spread across other Bulgarian villages and into the Balkans. Following the emancipation of the Bulgarian Church, and recognition of Bulgarians as a distinct religious group, a sense of nationalism was aroused amongst the public. The revolution was suppressed through the massacre known as the Bulgarian Horrors. | Europe |
| Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising | Ilinden (St. Elijah’s Day) Uprising | 20th | 2 August 1903 | October 1903 | The Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising, also known as the Ilinden (St. Elijah’s Day) Uprising, was a rebellion by the Bulgarian people against Ottoman imperial rule, especially following the decision at the 1878 Berlin Congress to keep Macedonia and Southern Thrace within the Ottoman’s domain. The Uprising was organised by a network of revolutionary committees, and was quickly and brutally crushed by Ottoman forces. | Europe |
| Treaty of Brest-Litovsk | Treaty of Brest | 20th | 3 March 1918 | | The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, also known as the Treaty of Brest, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided the terms of peace between the Central Powers and each of Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian Republic, respectively, following the First World War. Under the terms of the treaty with Russia, Russia ceded almost half its European territory. Some countries, including Ukraine, became independent states, while others were ceded to Germany, Romania, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire. | Europe |
| Soviet-Lithuanian Peace Treaty | Moscow Peace Treaty | 20th | 12 July 1920 | | The Soviet-Lithuanian Peace Treaty, also known as the Moscow Peace Treaty, provided the terms of peace between the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and Lithuania, following the Lithuanian-Soviet War, also known as the First Lithuanian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia recognised the independence of Lithuania, and in a secret article Lithuania guaranteed unrestricted movement of the RSFSR’s troops in Lithuania during the ongoing Polish-Soviet War. | Europe |
| Polish-Lithuanian War | Third Lithuanian War of Independence | 20th | Dates contested | Dates contested | The Polish-Lithuanian War, also known as the Third Lithuanian War of Independence, was a conflict between Lithuania and Poland. Lithuanian historians tend to describe it as the third war of independence fought by Lithuania between May 1919 and November 1920; however Polish historians have tended to describe it as a shorter conflict, lasting only September to October 1920. The conflict centred around control of Vilnius, Lithuania’s capital. | Europe |
| Łódź Insurrection | June Days | 20th | 21 June 1905 | 25 June 1905 | The Łódź insurrection, also known as the June Days, was a conflict between Polish workers in Łódź and the Russian Empire. Łódź workers began striking before the insurrection began, but the start of the uprising was not formally organised and took Polish revolutionary groups by surprise. Primary grievances were the crumbling Polish economy, in light of Russia’s war with Japan, and wider calls for Polish independence. | Europe |
| Finnish Civil War | | 20th | 27 January 1918 | 15 May 1918 | The Finnish Civil War was a conflict between Bolshevist Russia-backed Finnish Social Democrats (called ‘the Reds’) and the German Empire-backed conservative Senate (called ‘the Whites’). The conflict emerged out of a fight for leadership in the Finnish state during the transition of Finland from a Russian imperial territory to an independent nation. Much of the conflict represented a wider debate over what might be a post-colonial Finnish identity. | Europe |
| Easter Rising | Easter Rebellion | 20th | 24 April 1916 | 29 April 1916 | The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was a conflict between Irish nationalists and the British. The action was planned by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, supported by the Irish Citizen Army and the Sinn Féin party. Originally planned to be a nationwide revolution, the Easter Rising was ultimately confined to Dublin. Following the declaration of the Irish Republic on 24 April 1916, British forces arrived to quash the revolt, leading to surrender by Irish forces five days later, on 29 April. | Europe |
| Treaty of Lausanne | | 20th | 24 July 1923 | | The Treaty of Lausanne, also known as the Treaty of Peace and Exchange of War Prisoners with Turkey, provided the terms of peace between the British Empire, France, Japan, Italy, Greece, present-day Romania and present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Slovenia, Kosovo, and Turkey. The treaty defined the borders of the Turkish state, with Turkey renouncing claims to its former Arab territories, while the Allies dropped claims for spheres of influence in Turkey. | Europe |
| Peace of Riga | Treaty of Riga | 20th | 18 March 1921 | | The Treaty of Riga, also known as the Peace of Riga, provided the terms of peace between Poland and the Soviet Russia following the 1919-1920 Russo-Polish War. The treaty set the countries’ mutual border, giving parts of present-day Belarus and Ukraine to Poland. Poland was guaranteed financial compensation for the economic input it gave Russia during the Partitions of Poland. | Europe |
| Second Lithuanian War of Independence | War Against the Bermontians | 20th | June 1919 | December 1919 | The Second Lithuanian War of Independence, also known as the War against the Bermontians, was a conflict between Lithuania and the West Russian Volunteer Army, also known as the Bermontians. The latter were a German-Russian military organisation, in essence a hangover from an article in the Compiègne Armistice that provided for German imperial troops to remain in the Baltic provinces. Their goal was to maintain German power in the Baltic regions. | Europe |
| Estonian War of Independence | Estonian Liberation War | 20th | 28 November 1918 | 2 February 1920 | The Estonian War of Independence, also known as the Estonian Liberation War, was a conflict between the Republic of Estonia and the Russian Empire. Russia saw Estonia as a possible key part of the future workers’ revolution, whilst Estonia sought to retain its independence. After an initial Russian invasion on Estonian soil, their army was repelled by Estonian forces. In the Treaty of Tartu that followed the conflict, Russia recognised Estonia’s independence. | Europe |
| Latvian-Soviet Peace Treaty | | 20th | 11 August 1920 | | The Latvian-Soviet Peace Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Riga or the Peace of Riga of 1921, provided the terms of peace between Latvia and present-day Russia following the Latvian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia recognised Latvia’s independence. The agreement contained provisions for reparations, however, in practice, much of the Latvian industrial infrastructure had been claimed and removed to Russia, making it impossible for Latvia to fully recover its worth. | Europe |
| Lithuanian-Soviet War | First Lithuanian War of Independence | 20th | 12 December 1918 | 31 August 1919 | The Lithuanian-Soviet War, also known as the First Lithuanian War of Independence, was a conflict between newly-independent Lithuania – especially its nationalist populace – and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR). The RSFSR invaded Lithuania in December 1918 and slowly occupied many towns across the country, with the aim of creating a network of Soviet Republics across Eastern Europe. Lithuanian nationalists sought to defend the country’s newly independent status. | Europe |
| Russo-Ukrainian War | | 21st | 20 February 2014 | Ongoing | The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War started when Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine. Earlier in 2014, civil unrest and several demonstrations in Ukraine forced the pro-Russian Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych to step down. This in turn led to demonstrations by pro-Russian groups in the eastern and southern parts of Ukraine and prompted Russia to invade and annexe Crimea. Tensions escalated into a war when Russia launched a full scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. | Europe |
| Anglo-Irish War | Irish War of Independence | 20th | 21 January 1919 | 11 July 1921 | The Anglo-Irish war, also known in Ireland as the Irish War of Independence, was fought in Ireland between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and British Crown forces. It was initiated by a small number of young Irish Republican Army Volunteers whose aim was to gain independence by force. The British government had previously made attempts towards Irish Home Rule preceding the Anglo-Irish war, but the violent British reaction to the Easter Rising (an armed insurrection in April 1916) led to growing support for Irish independence. The war ended with a truce that led to the creation of the Irish Free State which, however, remained under the influence of the British Crown. | Europe |
| Anglo-Irish Treaty | The Treaty | 20th | 6 December 1921 | | The Anglo-Irish Treaty (Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland) and known in Ireland as ‘The Treaty’, was signed by the British Empire and Irish Republic, concluding the Anglo-Irish War. It resulted in the withdrawal of British troops from the majority of Ireland and in the establishment of the Irish Free State. The Irish Free State was however kept under the influence of the British Crown and was given dominion status rather than that of an independent Republic. This led to internal tensions, as public opinion was split over the treaty, and became the direct cause of the Irish Civil War in 1922–23. | Europe |
| Italian Invasion of Albania | | 20th | 7 April 1939 | 12 April 1939 | The Italian Invasion of Albania was a conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Albanian Kingdom. The invasion was the result of the imperialistic ambitions of the Italian Prime Minister and Dictator Benito Mussolini. Italy had already put pressure on Albania in the preceding years, but King Zog I of Albania refused to give in despite direct threats from Mussolini in 1934. Prompted by Hitler’s invasion of Czechoslovakia and the imminent birth of an Albanian royal child, the Italians quickly annexed Albania, and King Zog I went into exile in neighbouring Greece. | Europe |
| First Balkan War | | 20th | 8 October 1912 | 30 May 1913 | The First Balkan War was a result of the rise of nationalism in the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire’s weakening grip on this region. Despite internal conflicts, the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro united their armies and seized the unique chance to strike at the Ottoman Empire, whose armies were in decline and significantly outnumbered by the Balkan League. The outcome of this war proved to be disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, as they lost almost all their remaining European territories. | Europe |
| Treaty of London (1913) | | 20th | 30 May 1913 | | The Treaty of London was signed by representatives from the Great Powers (the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary),and from the Balkan League (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro). Though representatives from the Ottoman Empire were absent at the signing, this treaty effectively ended the First Balkan War. It divided the formerly Ottoman-ruled territories in the Balkans among the members of the Balkan League. However, the delineation of the exact boundaries was unpopular with some parties involved and later led to the Second Balkan War. | Europe |
| Albanian Revolt of 1912 | Albanian War of Independence | 20th | January 1912 | 4 September 1912 | The Albanian Revolt of 1912, also known as the Albanian War of Independence, was a conflict involving the Albanians and the Ottoman Empire. It preceded the First Balkan War and was an important sign for neighbouring countries that the Ottoman Empire was weakening. The conflict was caused by new legislation introduced by the Young Turks, a political reform movement within the Ottoman Empire, requiring Albanians to serve in the Ottoman Empire and increasing their taxes, among other stipulations. The war ended when Albania’s demands were fulfilled on 4 September 1912. | Europe |
| Greek War of Independence | Greek Insurgence | 19th | 21 February 1821 | 12 September 1829 | The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Insurgence and the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Greek revolutionaries supported by the British Empire, Kingdom of France and Russian Empire. It was the result of growing Greek nationalism, supported by Western European ‘philhellenes’, and a weakening Ottoman Empire who had ruled Greece since the 15th century. The involvement of other European powers, partly due to envy of the Ottomans, was key to Greece becoming a sovereign power. | Europe |
| 1830 Protocol of London | Third London Protocol | 19th | 3 February 1830 | | The 1830 Protocol of London, also known as the Third London Protocol and in Greece as the Protocol of Independence, was signed by the European ‘Great Powers’ - the Kingdom of France, the Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland – and was the first official international diplomatic act to recognise Greece as an independent state. The treaty marked the end of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. It also defined the borders of this new state and recognised a Sovereign Prince of Greece. | Europe |
| Greco-Turkish War | Unfortunate War | 19th | 18 April 1897 | 20 May 1897 | The Greco-Turkish War, also known in Greece as the Unfortunate War, started over a conflict around the Ottoman-held island of Crete, whose Greek-majority population wanted to unite with the Kingdom of Greece. This was the first open war fought by Greece since the Greek War of Independence of 1821. Greece’s lack of preparation combined with the Ottoman Empire’s military reorganisation resulted in a clear Ottoman victory. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople (1897) | | 19th | 4 December 1897 | | The Treaty of Constantinople was a treaty signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Greece, ending the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. It was brokered by the European ‘Great Powers’ who tried to limit Greece’s losses after the war in which the Ottomans had clearly gained the upper hand. Although it was decided that Greece should pay the Ottoman Empire a hefty sum for war reparations, it was able to regain almost all territories lost to the Ottomans during the war. The island of Crete also became an autonomous state. | Europe |
| Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) | War of 93 | 19th | 24 April 1877 | 3 March 1878 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, also known as the War of 93, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the coalition of the Russian Empire, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It took place in the Caucasus and Balkans and was a result of rising nationalism in the Balkan states, along with the Russian Empire wanting to re-establish itself in the Black Sea after territorial losses in the Crimean war. It was a clear victory for the Russian Empire, who had almost reached Constantinople when a truce was enforced by the British Empire. | Europe |
| 1878 Treaty of San Stefano | Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano | 19th | 3 March 1878 | | The 1878 Treaty of San Stefano, also known as the Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, was signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire and ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. This treaty would have established the Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous state, ended Ottoman control over the Balkan states, and secured significant territorial gains for Russia. However, some of these changes were reversed by the European ‘Great Powers’ in the Treaty of Berlin which followed a months later and which superseded this peace treaty. | Europe |
| Franco-Prussian War | War of 1870 | 19th | 19 July 1870 | 28 January 1871 | The Franco-Prussian War, also known in France as the War of 1870, was fought between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation. The German victory led to an important shift of power in continental Europe, along with the creation of a unified Germany. Although the direct cause for this conflict was the Spanish throne succession, the French Empire initiated this war to retain their dominant position after direct provocation by the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who saw this as a unique chance to establish new German alliances. | Europe |
| Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) | | 19th | 10 May 1871 | | The Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871 was signed by the French Third Republic and the German Empire and ended the Franco-Prussian War. According to the wish of Otto von Bismarck, Prince of Bismarck, this treaty formally united Germany under the rule of King Wilhelm I. It therefore had an important impact on Europe’s balance of power, which until then had been influenced mostly by the British and French Empires. The treaty defined the borders between France and Germany and specified a French war indemnity. It led to polarised German-French relations and influenced France's involvement in World War I. | Europe |
| Crimean War | | 19th | 16 October 1853 | 30 March 1856 | The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Second French Empire, British Empire, and Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. It took place across Europe, including in Crimea, the Balkans and the North Caucasus. The direct cause of the conflict was Russia’s desire to protect Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The French and British Empire were deeply concerned about Russian expansionism and joined the war to uphold the failing Ottoman Empire. The war resulted in Russia’s defeat. | Europe |
| Treaty of Paris of 1856 | | 19th | 30 March 1856 | | The Treaty of Paris of 1856 brought the Crimean War to an end, and was signed by the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. This treaty diminished Russia’s influence in Crimea and saw the Ottoman Empire join the ‘Great Powers’, or European concert. It ensured territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, opened the Danube to shipping, and demilitarised the Black Sea. The latter was particularly painful for Russia, and this clause was consequently disregarded when Russia decided to re-establish its naval military presence in 1870. | Europe |
| Peace of Callias | | 5th BC | 449 BCE | | The Peace of Callias was signed by the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire and the Delian league, led by the city state of Athens, and which concluded the Greco-Persian Wars. Though the existence of this treaty is sometimes debated, it does appear in several Greek literary works, including those of Isocrates and Demosthenes. It seems likely that some sort of agreement was reached between the Persians and the Greeks around this time, since the fighting ceased and the Delian league members initiated fighting amongst themselves, as they had arguably lost their main reason for unification. | Europe |
| Eighty Years' War | Dutch Revolt | 16th, 17th | 1 August 1566 | 30 January 1648 | The Eighty Years’ War, also known in the Netherlands as the Dutch Revolt, was a conflict between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic, which was fought in the Low Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, and part of western Germany and northern France). It began for several reasons including increased centralisation policies, taxation, and religious disputes, and led to the emergence of an independent Dutch Republic and colonial empire which significantly shifted the balance of power in Europe and beyond. | Europe |
| Peace of Münster | | 17th | 30 January 1648 | | The Peace of Münster was signed by the Seven United Netherlands and the Spanish Empire, concluding both the Eighty Years' War and Thirty Years’ War. It was negotiated in parallel with the Treaty of Osnabrück (though it is not a part of this agreement),and together these peace treaties are referred to as the Peace of Westphalia. The agreement signed in Münster ensured religious tolerance across the Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent state. Spain was able to retain the Southern Netherlands (modern-day Belgium and Luxembourg). | Europe |
| Treaty of Münster | | 17th | 24 October 1648 | | The Treaty of Münster was signed between the Kingdom of France (with regent cardinal Jules Mazarin for the underage king Louis XIV of France) along with its allies, and with the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III and his allies. The treaty was part of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War. | Europe |
| Long Turkish War | Thirteen Years' War | 16th, 17th | 1 August 1591 | 11 November 1606 | The Long Turkish War, also known as the Thirteen Years' War and in Turkey as the Ottoman–Austrian War of 1593–1606, was a conflict primarily involving the Habsburg Empire and the Principalities of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia on one side and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It started with conflicts along the Habsburg–Ottoman border and quickly escalated to a land conflict in Hungary, Wallachia, and the Balkan Peninsula. It was a test of strength for both the Habsburg and Ottoman Empire, resulting in little gain for either side, and in the stabilisation of their borders. | Europe |
| Peace of Zsitvatorok | | 17th | 11 November 1606 | | The Peace of Zsitvatorok was signed by the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire and ended the Long Turkish War. This agreement has been interpreted in different ways, partially because of inconsistencies between Ottoman Turkish and Hungarian texts, though a payment from Emperor Rudolf II to Sultan Ahmed I was certainly agreed. The agreement also stipulated that the Ottomans could no longer lead looting campaigns into Hungary. The agreement proved to be a blow to Ottoman prestige and stabilised the Habsburg–Ottoman border. | Europe |
| Moldavian Magnate Wars | Moldavian Ventures | 16th, 17th | 1593 | 23 September 1617 | The Moldavian Magnate Wars, also known as the Moldavian Ventures, were conflicts involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Moldavia, the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth tried to strengthen their influence over the principality of Moldavia, clashing with the Ottoman Empire’s expansionist ambitions. Tensions further increased due to raids by the Cossacks and Tatars. Ultimately, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was forced to denounce all Polish claims to Moldavia. | Europe |
| Peace of Busza | Treaty of Jaruga | 17th | 23 September 1617 | | The Peace of Busza, also known as the Treaty of Jaruga, was signed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, and concluded the Moldavian Magnate Wars. As part of this treaty, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth promised not to interfere in affairs of the Ottoman vassal states of Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. It also ceded Khotyn and prevented Cossack raids into the Ottoman Empire. In return, the Ottomans would prevent Tatar raids. Both parties were unable to keep their promises and would continue to raid the borderlands, which led to a new war. | Europe |
| Polish–Ottoman War | | 17th | 1620 | 9 October 1621 | The Polish-Ottoman War was a conflict between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Peace of Busza was violated by both parties as raids by the Cossacks and Tatars continued to take place. When Gaspar Graziani, ruler of Moldavia, sought an alliance with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sultan Osman II decided to send a large force to the region. After two battles, a treaty was signed and forced the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to stop its interference in Moldavia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Khotyn | | 17th | 9 October 1621 | | The Treaty of Khotyn was signed after the Battle of Khotyn by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, ending the Polish–Ottoman War. This treaty, for the most part, consolidated the earlier Peace of Busza: the Commonwealth would cede Khotyn, cease interfering in the affairs of Ottoman vassal states and prevent Cossack raids in return for the Ottoman prevention of Tatar raids. The outcome of the war and this specific treaty did have significant consequences for the Ottoman Empire, as it indirectly led to the rebellion of janissaries and to the assassination of Sultan Osman II. | Europe |
| Great Turkish War | Wars of the Holy League | 17th | 14 July 1683 | 26 January 1699 | The Great Turkish War, also known in Turkish as the Wars of the Holy League, was fought between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition known as the ‘Holy League’ including the Habsburg Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Republic of Venice, and Tsardom of Russia. The Ottoman Empire, encouraged by previous successes, decided to invade the Habsburg Empire and almost captured Vienna. However, a Christian alliance broke the siege and the borders of the Ottoman Empire were pushed back considerably by the Holy League, initiated by Pope Innocent XI. | Europe |
| Treaty of Karlowitz | | 17th | 26 January 1699 | | The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Members of the Holy League, including the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Holy Roman Empire, Venetian Republic, and Tsardom of Russia, and was mediated by the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic. The treaty concluded the Great Turkish War and effectively ended Ottoman expansion and dominion in Central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg monarchy became the dominant power in this region as it reclaimed almost all of Hungary, ending the kingdom’s trisection. | Europe |
| Gallic Wars | | 1st BC | 58 BCE | 50 BCE | The Gallic Wars refer to the aggressive campaigns against large parts of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland),led by Julius Caesar for the Roman Republic. Gallic, Germanic and British tribes had attacked Rome several times to reclaim territory, and as a result, the wars were waged by the Roman republic to strengthen and secure their northern borders of the river Rhine. The Roman Republic achieved a decisive victory, providing Julius Caesar the chance to bolster his reputation and political career as well as to pay off debts. | Europe |
| Cantabrian Wars | Cantabrian and Asturian War | 1st BC | 29 BCE | 19 BCE | The Cantabrian Wars, or the Cantabrian and Asturian War, were fought between the Roman Empire and the Cantabri and the Astures, the last two independent Celtic nations in north-western Hispania (present-day Spain). The Cantabri and Astures fiercely resisted Roman expansion and expansion. To avoid further humiliation, Emperor Augustus waged a bloody war against the Celtic nations, resulting in a somewhat Pyrrhic victory that inflicted devastating toll on the Roman Empire’s armies. | Europe |
| Marcomannic Wars | German and Sarmatian War | 2nd | 166 | 180 | The Marcomannic Wars, or the German and Sarmatian War, were a series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and several Germanic and Sarmatian tribes, most notably the Marcomanni, Quadi, and the Lazyges. It took place across the northeastern border of the Roman Empire, where Germanic and Sarmatian tribes grew increasingly confident that they could take control of Roman settlements along this northern frontier of the Roman Empire. It became the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius’ goal to stabilise the situation. After several conflicts, the wars ended in a stalemate with both sides claiming victory. | Europe |
| Bellum Batonianum | War of the Batos | 1st | 6 | 9 | The Bellum Batonianum, also known as the War of the Batos and as the Great Illyrian Revolt, was fought between the Roman Empire and native peoples of Dalmatia and Pannonia, regions which covered modern-day Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo, Serbia, and western Hungary. The conflict started when Illyrian natives were commanded to fight in a Roman war against Germanic tribes and mutinied. Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian, and Pinnes led an alliance of natives against the Romans, but were defeated and split into different groups from the ones they had previously composed. | Europe |
| Sicilian Wars | Greco-Punic Wars | 6th BC, 5th BC, 4th BC, 3rd BC | 580 BCE | 265 BCE | The Sicilian Wars, or the Greco-Punic Wars, were fought by Greek city states on Sicily against the Carthaginian Empire for control over the island. As the Greek city states, many ruled by tyrants, waged war against one another, this conflict cannot simply be described as a conflict between the Greeks and Carthaginians, as the Carthaginians often backed different city states in their internal conflicts to increase their control over the island. Ultimately, the Carthaginians ruled over western Sicily whereas the Greek city states retained control over the eastern part. | Europe |
| Revolt of the Batavi | | 1st | 69 | 70 | The Revolt of the Batavi was fought between the Roman Empire and natives of Germania inferior (part of modern-day Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and western Germany). The conflict started when the Batavi rebelled against the Romans after many were forced to join the Roman army. The Batavi and allied Celtic tribes, all skilled warriors, managed to defeat two Roman legions and control two others. They were eventually defeated by a massive Roman army and forced to accept Roman rule under humiliating conditions. | Europe |
| Umayyad Conquest of Hispania | Muslim Conquest of Spain | 8th | 711 | 718 | The Umayyad Conquest of Hispania, also known as the Muslim Conquest of Spain, was a war fought between the Umayyad Caliphate and Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania. Ibn Abd al-Hakam, governor of Tangier, invaded southern Spain at a time when the Visigothic Kingdom was starting to fracture. The Umayyad Caliphate was successful in its conquest, as most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under their rule. The conquered territory would become known as al-Andalus. | Europe |
| Slavic revolt of 983 | Great Slav Rising | 10th | 983 | 983 | The Slavic Revolt of 983, also known as the Great Slav Rising, took place in the northeastern part of the Holy Roman Empire (modern-day north-east Germany). The Slavic people living east of the Elbe River had been subjected to Holy Roman Empire rule since the early 10th century when the empire expanded eastwards. Attempts had been made to convert the Slavic population to Christianity, and when the Holy Roman Empire showed signs of internal instability, the Slavic people rebelled and reclaimed much of their former land, resulting in a halt to the eastward expansion of both the Holy Roman Empire and Christianity. | Europe |
| German–Polish War | | 11th | 1003 | 30 January 1018 | The German-Polish War was fought between the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Poland. Just before the conflict started, Emperor Otto III of the Holy Roman Empire died prematurely, leading to a succession crisis. This was an opportune moment for Polish Piast ruler Bolesław I the Brave to take control of border regions, including Lusatia and Upper Lusatia (covering today’s Poland and Germany). The war that ensued can be divided in three campaigns after which a peace treaty was signed. Overall, the Poles were more successful as their territory now expanded into Lusatia and Upper Lusatia. | Europe |
| Peace of Bautzen | | 11th | 30 January 1018 | | The Peace of Bautzen was signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Poland ending the German–Polish War. By the time this treaty was signed, King Bolesław I of Poland had conquered Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Lusatia, and Upper Lusatia. Despite several attempts, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II was unable to undo these Polish advances. The peace treaty signed at Bautzen formally recognised Lusatia and Upper Lusatia as parts of the Duchy of Poland. A marriage was also arranged for Bolesław, which strengthened his ties to the Holy Roman Empire. | Europe |
| Anglo-French War (1213-1214) | | 13th | 1213 | 28 September 1214 | The Anglo-French War was primarily fought between the Kingdom of France and the Angevin Empire and revolved around possession of Normandy. A decade earlier, Philipp II of France had conquered much of Normandy and the Anglo-French war was a direct result of this expansion. King John of England, worried about French expansionism, tried to regain these lost territories with aid from other European states, as they were part of an important continental region of the Angevin Empire. The war resulted in a French victory and the eventual collapse of the Angevin Empire. | Europe |
| Truce of Chinon | | 13th | 28 September 1214 | | The Truce of Chinon was signed by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England and ended the Anglo-French War. It broke up the Angevin Empire which had formerly included half of France, all of England, parts of Ireland and Wales, and the British Isles. Following the Battle of Bouvines, which resulted in the defeat of King John of England’s allies, the French King Philip II of France managed to broker this agreement that saw large parts of France come under his rule again. Also, it stipulated the payment of a substantial sum of money, 60,000 pounds, by King John of England. | Europe |
| Danish-Norwegian War | War of the Outlaws | 13th | 1289 | 1296 | The Danish-Norwegian War, also known as the War of the Outlaws and the Revenge War, was a conflict between two royal families and fought between the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. The war was triggered by the assassination of King Erik V of Denmark by several Danish nobles. War erupted after those responsible were harboured by King Eric Magnusson of Norway, though the decision to wage war was heavily influenced by Norway’s wish to expand southwards. The outlawed Danish nobles, supported by Norway, played a significant role in the war and managed to occupy northern Halland (modern-day Sweden). | Europe |
| War of the Keys | | 13th | 1228 | 23 July 1230 | The War of the Keys was a conflict between the Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, ruled by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Frederick II was excommunicated by pope Gregory IX after failing to go on a promised crusade several times. When he finally did join the sixth crusade, Gregory IX invaded parts of central Italy and Sicily which were under imperial control. The conflict was therefore also fuelled by conflicting papal and imperial territorial claims. Though the Papal States were successful at first, Frederick II managed to reclaim his former territories upon his return. | Europe |
| Treaty of San Germano | | 13th | 23 July 1230 | | The Treaty of San Germano was signed by Pope Gregory IX and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, ending the War of the Keys. After the excommunication of Emperor Frederick II and the Papal State’s attempt to confiscate the Kingdom of Sicily, this peace treaty could only be established by the mediation of many different parties. The treaty is generally seen as a victory for Emperor Frederick II, as it restored imperial territories in Italy and Sicily, recognised him as the rightful ruler, and lifted his excommunication. In return, he surrendered his special rights over the church in Sicily. | Europe |
| Great Heathen Army | Viking Great Army | 9th | 865 | 878 | The Great Heathen Army, also known as the Viking Great Army, was a coalition of Scandinavian raiders who invaded and aimed to conquer the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia. Though Viking raids had already occurred in England before this time, the Great Heathen Army was the first unified attack, possibly inspired by the realisation that unification of the separate Viking communities would lead to a more successful campaign. All Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were conquered with the exception of Wessex, which was successfully defended by King Alfred the Great. | Europe |
| Treaty of Wedmore | | 9th | 878 | | The Treaty of Wedmore was agreed by King Alfred the Great of Wessex and Viking leader Guthrum the Old. It was brokered after the Battle of Edington, in which Alfred managed to defeat the ‘Viking Great Army’ or ‘Great Heathen Army’, and push them back to their stronghold. The Welsh monk Asher mentions this treaty in his famous work ‘The Life of Alfred’, and how it followed a siege led by Alfred. According to this account, the Vikings promised to leave Wessex at peace, King Guthrum the Old was baptised and given the baptismal name of Æthelstan, with Alfred taking up the role of his godfather. | Europe |
| Scottish–Norwegian War | Norwegian Invasion of Scotland in 1263 | 13th | 1262 | 2 July 1266 | The Scottish–Norwegian War, also called the Norwegian Invasion of Scotland in 1263, was fought in Scotland between the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of Norway. The conflict mainly arose from a dispute over the Hebrides which was under Norwegian control. King Alexander II of Scotland had tried to purchase the Hebrides from King Haakon IV of Norway, but his son Alexander III threatened to take it by force. This led to a large fleet being sent from Norway and to several mostly indecisive skirmishes. Eventually, Scotland managed to obtain sovereignty over the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. | Europe |
| Treaty of Perth | | 13th | 2 July 1266 | | The Treaty of Perth was signed by the Kingdom of Norway and the Kingdom of Scotland and ended the Scottish–Norwegian War. This war was mainly fought over control of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. After several inconclusive skirmishes, King Magnus VI of Norway sued for peace with this treaty, which saw the Hebrides and the Isle of Man come under Scottish rule. In return, Norway would receive a lump sum of 4,000 marks and an annuity of 100 marks. The treaty also recognised the Norwegian sovereignty over the Shetland Islands and the Orkney Islands. | Europe |
| Franco-Flemish War | Flemish Revolt | 13th, 14th | 1297 | 23 June 1305 | The Franco-Flemish Wars, also known as the Flemish Revolt, was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and the County of Flanders. Officially, the County of Flanders was a part of the Kingdom of France, but it enjoyed de facto independence until King Philip IV of France decided to tighten his control over this very wealthy county which included some of the richest cities at the time, including Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Lille and Douai. Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders severed ties with the Kingdom of France after several personal conflicts with Philip IV, which led to war. Both sides claimed sometimes unexpected victories, resulting in the Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge in 1305. | Europe |
| Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge | | 14th | 23 June 1305 | | The Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge was signed by the Kingdom of France and County of Flanders, ending the Franco-Flemish War. It followed the Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, in which King Philip IV led the French to victory. Despite this, the County of Flanders remained independent under Count Robert III as fiefdom of France. The treaty stipulated that a hefty war penalty should be paid by the Flemish, which was further enforced by Pope Clement V with the threat of excommunication. These fees, hitting Flemish farmers and middle class the hardest, eventually led to a popular uprising. | Europe |
| Hundred Years' War | | 14th, 15th | 24 May 1337 | 19 October 1453 | The Hundred Years' War was an intermittent armed conflict fought between the Kingdom of France and Kingdom of England. There are many underlying factors which triggered the war, including disputes over continental territories and succession to the French throne. At the beginning of this conflict, King Edward III helped the English achieve significant victories over France. However, Charles V of France managed to regain almost all lost territory by 1380 and turned the war in France’s favour. In the end, the Kingdom of England lost its continental territories except for the port city of Calais. | Europe |
| Treaty of Picquigny | | 15th | 29 August 1475 | | The Treaty of Picquigny was signed by the Kingdom of France and Kingdom of England, ending the Hundred Years' War. Initially, the English had the upper hand and conquered large parts of France. Later, a rise in French counterattacks caused the English to lose almost all their continental territories. This treaty was brokered after King Edward IV of England launched an invasion of France in 1475 that met formidable French resistance. It led to the withdrawal of English troops in return for a considerable payment. | Europe |
| Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars | | 14th | 1345 | 1396 | The Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars were fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Second Bulgarian Empire. It took place at a time when the two main powers in southeastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire and Second Bulgarian Empire, were weakening. This enabled the Ottoman Empire to gain a foothold in Europe in 1354, and to launch a campaign in the direction of Sofia the following year. Though the Ottomans suffered some setbacks in their conquest of the Balkans, they did emerge victorious and annexed large parts of the Second Bulgarian Empire, which consequently fell apart. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Hungarian Wars | | 14th, 15th | 1366 | 29 August 1526 | The Ottoman–Hungarian Wars describe a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, at a time when the Ottoman Empire was rapidly expanding into south-eastern Europe and keen to move into central Europe. At first, the Hungarians were able to keep the Ottomans at bay by aligning themselves with Moldavia and the principality of Wallachia. However, the tides turned mostly during the reign of Suleiman I and the Hungarians suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of Mohács, leading to the downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary. | Europe |
| Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War | | 15th | 6 August 1409 | 1 February 1411 | The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War was fought between the Teutonic State and the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Teutonic Knights were a crusading military order who had raided parts of the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 13th century. When Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania married Queen Jadwiga of Poland, this led to an alliance between the two countries and Lithuania’s conversion to Christianity. The Polish–Lithuanian union moved against the Teutonic Order, diminishing their influence in the region. | Europe |
| First Peace of Thorn | | 15th | 1 February 1411 | | The First Peace of Thorn was signed by the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Teutonic State, concluding the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The Polish–Lithuanian union had managed to win a decisive victory over the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald. However, the First Peace of Thorn hardly led to any territorial losses for the Teutonic Knights, which can be considered a diplomatic victory on their side. High ransoms set by the Polish–Lithuanian union did however greatly affect the Teutonic State, causing economic decline and internal unrest that ultimately led to further conflict. | Europe |
| Hussite Wars | Hussite Revolution | 15th | 30 July 1419 | 30 May 1434 | The Hussite Wars, also known as the Hussite Revolution or the Bohemian Wars, was a religious conflict between the Catholic Church, championed by (among others) the Holy Roman Empire, and the followers of Jan Hus, primarily among the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Jan Hus was a pre-Protestant Christian reformer whose execution in Konstanz for heresy was the direct cause of this conflict. The Hussites grew in number and took over Prague and other parts of Bohemia. This led to a crusade led by the Holy Roman Empire and the defeat of radical Hussites, but not the moderate Hussites. | Europe |
| Religious Peace of Kutná Hora | | 15th | March 1485 | | The Religious Peace of Kutná Hora was brokered between the Utraquist Hussites and Roman Catholics living in a part of the Holy Roman Empire that covers today’s Czech Republic. It ended the Hussite Wars primarily fought over religious differences and intolerance. As part of this treaty, both the Ultraquist Hussites and the Roman Catholics agreed to accept the Council of Basel’s conclusions. Increased religious freedom and tolerance were key factors in land development, but contributed to future conflicts of interests between nobility and middle class. | Europe |
| First Ottoman–Venetian War | | 15th | 1463 | 25 January 1479 | The First Ottoman–Venetian War was fought between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The Venetians had become a major European power in the 15th century, largely due to the monopolisation of Eastern trade. The advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 threatened Venice’s dominance in the eastern Mediterranean, leading to this first conflict between the Venetians and the Ottomans. The war was a clear success for the Ottomans, who conquered strategic Venetian holdings in Albania and Greece. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople (1479) | | 15th | 25 January 1479 | | The Treaty of Constantinople was signed by the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire, concluding the First Ottoman–Venetian War. This war was triggered by the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, threatening Venetian dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. After several skirmishes, the Ottomans managed to gain the upper hand and in this resulting peace treaty, the Venetians ceded many territories to the Ottomans. They were also forced to pay the Ottomans for war repairs as well as the ability to trade in the Black Sea, severely weakening their position in the Levant. | Europe |
| Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War | | 15th, 16th | 1493 | 1593 | The Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Croatia that were a result of Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Ottoman Empire was steadily gaining ground and had more troops available in the Balkans after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Kingdom of Croatia was keen on defending Christian Europe and clashed with the Ottomans in 1493 at the Battle of Krbava Field. Although the Croatians lost a large part of their territory, they succeeded in halting the Ottomans’ territorial expansion. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497 | Stures' Russian War | 15th | 1495 | March 1497 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497, also known as the Stures' Russian War, was a between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, allied with King Hans of Denmark. King Hans wanted to take the Swedish throne from the Sture family. Ivan III of Moscow sent an army to lay siege of the Swedish castle of Vyborg when, after several months, Russia’s assaults were halted by a huge explosion. Though this short war didn’t lead to any territorial changes, it is significant in that it the first war between Sweden and Russia. | Europe |
| First Novgorod Truce | | 15th | March 1497 | | The First Novgorod Truce was agreed between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kingdom of Sweden, bringing the Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497 to an end. The war and this subsequent truce did not lead to any significant territorial changes, though the truce did lead to reconfirming borders as they were agreed upon in 1323, and also established the principle of free trade between the Russians and Swedes. In 1510, the agreement was extended for another 60 years. | Europe |
| Swabian War | War of the Engadin | 15th | January 1499 | 22 September 1499 | The Swabian War, also known as the Swiss War and the War of the Engadin, was fought between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the Swabian League, part of the Holy Roman Empire. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III of Habsburg established the Swabian League in 1488 as an institution that helped to maintain imperial peace. The Swiss didn’t recognise this league, and their refusal to join led to a short yet brutal war. The Swiss won six successive victories, prompting a peace treaty that recognised the Old Swiss Confederacy as a separate political entity, though officially it remained part of the Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Basel | | 15th | 22 September 1499 | | The Treaty of Basel was signed by the Old Swiss Confederacy and the Swabian League (part of the Holy Roman Empire) and concluded the Swabian War. This short, brutal war ended after the Battle of Dornach, which saw a decisive victory for the Swiss. Consequently, the peace treaty that followed significantly strengthened the position of the Old Swiss Confederacy within the Holy Roman Empire. It also earned the Swiss the reputation of being among the finest fighters in Europe. Just two years after this treaty, in 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Swiss confederation. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Habsburg Wars | | 16th, 17th, 18th | 29 August 1526 | 4 August 1791 | The Ottoman–Habsburg Wars were fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire across Central and Eastern Europe. As the main European power, the Habsburg Empire saw the expansion of the Ottoman Empire as a threat to their dominion. The Battle of Mohacs was a decisive Ottoman victory, ending the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, but starting war with Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia and later the Holy Roman Emperor. This war lasted for centuries, with successes and defeats on both sides which led to the decline of both empires and allowed a shift in the balance of power. | Europe |
| Treaty of Sistova | | 18th | 4 August 1791 | | The Treaty of Sistova was signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire after it was brokered by the British Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Dutch Republic. It concluded the Ottoman–Habsburg Wars which had been fought - with varying levels of intensity - over a period of more than two centuries. This prolonged conflict had led to the decline of both the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires and the emergence of new powers. The French Revolution put pressure on the Habsburg Empire to conclude this treaty which allowed them to make marginal territorial gains. | Europe |
| Swedish War of Liberation | Gustav Vasa's Rebellion | 16th | January 1521 | 1 September 1524 | The Swedish War of Liberation, also known as Gustav Vasa's Rebellion and the Swedish War of Secession, was a civil war in which the Swedes were fighting the other members of the Kalmar Union, Norway and Denmark, for independence. King Christian II, who presided over the Kalmar Union, was unpopular in Sweden and tensions arose when Gustav Vasa was appointed commander by delegates of the northern part of Dalarna. A rebellion, led by Gustav Vasa, was successful and brought the Kalmar Union to an end. Gustav Vasa was subsequently crowned King of Sweden in 1523. | Europe |
| Treaty of Malmö | Malmö Recess | 16th | 1 September 1524 | | The Treaty of Malmö, also known as the Malmö Recess, was signed by Denmark–Norway and the Kingdom of Sweden, ending the Swedish War of Liberation. Before the war, King Christian II had presided over the Kalmar Union between the Kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. As a result of the war, the Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa replaced Christian II and was crowned King Gustav I in 1523, effectively ending the Kalmar Union and marking the beginning of Denmark–Norway. The Treaty of Malmö - signed over a year later - consolidated this change and established new borders between these lands. | Europe |
| Saxon Feud | | 16th | 1514 | 3 December 1517 | The Saxon Feud was a military conflict between the County of East Frisia, the 'West Frisian' rebels and the City of Groningen on the one side, and Imperial Frisia and the Habsburg Netherlands on the other. In 1498, Albert III was appointed hereditary governor of 'the Frisian lands' by King of the Romans, and later Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I. Frisia had to be conquered first, which led to several conflicts with the Frisians, who kept resisting foreign rule. This eventually led to the 3-year Saxon Feud, resulting in marginal territorial gains and losses for both sides. | Europe |
| Peace of Zetel | | 16th | 3 December 1517 | | The Peace of Zetel was a treaty between the East Frisian Count Edzard I, Duke Henry II of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Count John V of Oldenburg, and which ended the Saxon feud. Edzard I had led the East Frisians, 'West Frisian' rebels, and city of Groningen against the Holy Roman Empire for which he received an ‘imperial ban’. After several battles and the tide slowly turning in Edzard’s favour, Emperor Charles V lifted the imperial ban. The treaty recognised Edzard’s rule over parts of East Frisia, though West Frisia, Groningen and the Ommelanden were placed under imperial rule. | Europe |
| German Peasants' War | Great Peasants' Revolt | 16th | 1524 | 1525 | The German Peasants' War, or the Great Peasants' Revolt, was a widespread rebellion within the Holy Roman Empire across German-speaking parts of Central Europe covering modern-day Germany, eastern France, Austria, and Switzerland. It was mostly a religious conflict fuelled by notions put forward by reformists during the Reformation. It was the largest and most widespread uprising until the French Revolution of 1789. Although supported by some key players in the Reformation, including Thomas Müntzer, its rejection by Martin Luther contributed to its eventual failure. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1521–1526 | Four Years' War | 16th | 1521 | 14 January 1526 | The Italian War of 1521–1526, or the Four Years’ War, was fought between the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Spain, England and Papal States on the one side and the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of France on the other. The direct cause of war was contention over the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, but also the Papal States’ decision to side with him. It started when the French invaded imperial territories, leading to conflicts in Spain, Italy and France. Francis I of France suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. | Europe |
| Treaty of Madrid (1526) | | 16th | 14 January 1526 | | The Treaty of Madrid was signed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his prisoner King Francis I of France at the end of the Italian War of 1521–1526. Among other things, the treaty stated that France would cede large parts of its territory - in France, Italy, Flanders, Artois, and Tournai - to the Holy Roman Empire. Francis signed the treaty in January 1526, leading to his release. Upon crossing the border to France, however, Francis refused to ratify the treaty and joined the League of Cognac with the intent to dethrone Charles V. | Europe |
| Second Habsburg-Valois War | War of the League of Cognac | 16th | 1526 | 1530 | The Second Habsburg-Valois War, or the War of the League of Cognac, was a conflict between the Habsburg dominions of Charles V and the League of Cognac, which included (among others) the Kingdom of France, Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan, and the Republic of Florence. The battle of Pavia of 1525 shifted the balance of power in Europe in favour of Charles V, which prompted other European powers into creating the League of Cognac. The resulting war which unfolded in Italy was ultimately a success for Charles V, who subsequently became Italy’s dominant power. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cambrai | Peace of the Ladies | 16th | 3 August 1529 | | The Treaty of Cambrai, also known as the Peace of the Ladies, was signed by the Holy Roman Empire represented by Margaret of Austria, and the Kingdom of France represented by Louise of Savoy, aided by Marguerite of Navarre. The treaty partially ended the Second Habsburg-Valois War. It removed France from the League of Cognac, leading to its disintegration. Its terms mirrored those set out in the earlier Treaty of Madrid (1526) but did leave Burgundy under French rule. Charles consequently acquired hegemony in Italy, though the Italian Wars would continue after this treaty was concluded. | Europe |
| Salt War (1540) | | 16th | Early 1540 | 4 June 1540 | The Salt War of 1540 is a conflict between the city of Perugia and the Papal States. Although Perugia had officially been part of the Papal States since 1370, it enjoyed a semi-autonomous status. This changed during the late 15th century when various popes attempted to bring Perugia under their direct control. A new salt tax levied by Pope Paul III in 1538, combined with a disastrous harvest in Perugia a year later spurred the city to rebel against papal rule. This uprising was quickly suppressed and Perugia's subordination to papal control was ensured by the construction of an enormous fortress. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1542–1546 | | 16th | 12 July 1542 | 7 June 1546 | The Italian War of 1542–1546 was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and Ottoman Empire on the one hand, and the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Spain and Kingdom of England on the other. The war began when the truce of Nice failed and Francis I of France attacked Spanish territories. The main dispute was over the Duchy of Milan, with conflicting claims of Francis I and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The war was fought most fiercely in Italy, France, and the Low Countries (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands). The war was indecisive, and two treaties were required to bring this conflict to an end. | Europe |
| Treaty of Ardres | Admirals’ Peace | 16th | 7 June 1546 | | The Treaty of Ardres, or the Admiral’s Peace, was signed by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England, ending the Italian War of 1542–1546. It followed the Treaty of Crépy, which had established a peace between the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Spain and Kingdom of France. England and France, however, remained at war and the fighting was most intense in Boulogne. Due to the war’s enormous costs and inconclusive outcome, a treaty was finally negotiated by two teams of English and French Admirals. It allowed the English to retain Boulogne for another eight years. | Europe |
| Rough Wooing | Eight Years' War | 16th | 24 November 1542 | 10 June 1551 | The Rough Wooing, also known as the Eight Years' War, was fought between the Kingdom of England and an alliance of the Kingdoms of Scotland and France. King Henry VIII wanted to break the Auld alliance between Scotland and France, to force the union of England and Scotland by arranging the marriage of Henry’s young heir, Edward, to Mary, Queen of Scots. Henry declared war on Scotland to put pressure on the Scottish Parliament to confirm this match, but Scotland favoured its alliance with France and many battles ensued. Neither side was able to win a decisive victory. | Europe |
| Treaty of Norham | | 16th | 10 June 1551 | | The Treaty of Norham was signed by the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland, arbitrated by the Kingdom of France, and ended the Rough Wooing, also known as the Eight Years' War. Under the terms of this treaty, the English would withdraw from their holdings in Scotland, while Scotland would regain fishing rights on the river Tweed. Importantly, a definitive border was drawn between England and Scotland, dividing the so-called ‘Debatable Lands’ between England and Scotland. Known as the Scots’ Dike, the border remains to this day. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1551–1559 | Last Italian War | 16th | 1551 | 2-3 April 1559 | The Italian War of 1551–1559, also known as the Last Italian War, was fought primarily between the Kingdom of France under Henry II and the Holy Roman Empire under Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire had conquered territories formerly ruled by France during the previous Italian Wars. Henry II of France tried to reclaim these lands from Charles V and the ensuing war was fought in different parts of Italy and the northern borders of France. Although France didn't succeed in advancing into Italy nor change the imperial occupation of surrounding lands, it did make territorial gains. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis | Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis | 16th | 2-3 April 1559 | | The Treaty or Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis consisted of several treaties signed by the Kingdom of England, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Spain, and agreed upon (though not officially signed) by the Holy Roman Empire. The treaty ended the Italian War of 1551–1559, the last of the Italian Wars, and was prompted by France’s defeats in battle, internal religious conflicts, and financial difficulties on both sides. Under the treaty’s terms, France would abandon its policy of interfering in Italy, marking the beginning of Spain’s dominance in Europe. | Europe |
| Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras | War of the Alpujarras | 16th | 24 December 1568 | March 1571 | The Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras, also known as the War of the Alpujarras or the Morisco Revolt, was an uprising of Granada Muslims against Spanish rule. It was sparked by an edict decreed by King Philip II which forced Christianity on the children of the Moors. Hernando de Córdoba y Valór, who changed his name to Abén Humeya, led this revolt and was crowned king of the Alpujarras, a historic and natural region in Andalusia. After some initial successes, the rebellion was crushed partly due to internal dissension among the Moors. Philip II moved the Granada Muslims to Castile and encouraged Catholics to live in Granada. | Europe |
| Granada War | | 15th | February 1482 | 2 January 1492 | The Granada War was fought between the Emirate of Granada and an alliance of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. The Emirate of Granada was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe and the only Emirate to resist the Reconquista, which aimed to reconquer all Muslim territories in Spain. Whereas the Christians were unified, partly due to marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Granadans were impacted by internal dissension and civil war. After several small campaigns launched by the Christians, Muhammad XII of Granada was forced to surrender. | Europe |
| Treaty of Granada (1491) | Capitulation of Granada | 15th | 25 November 1491 | | The Treaty of Granada, or the Capitulation of Granada, was signed by the Emirate of Granada and the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. It ended the Granada War and completed the Christian reconquest of Spain. It followed the battle of Granada, which resulted in the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon’s decisive victory. The treaty stipulated a short truce after which the Muslim Emirate of Granada was to relinquish its sovereignty over Granada. Under its terms, religious tolerance for the Moors was included, but not for the native Jewish population who faced either conversion or expulsion. | Europe |
| Great Siege of Malta | | 16th | 18 May 1565 | 11 September 1565 | The Great Siege of Malta involved the Ottoman Empire and an alliance between Hospitaller Malta and the Spanish Empire. The Knights Hospitaller were based in Malta since 1530 and had to endure several attacks from the Ottomans, who were keen to seize Malta to ensure their dominion over the Mediterranean. The Great Siege of Malta gained such notoriety that Voltaire praised the bravery of the outnumbered knights who held off the Ottomans. The siege marked the moment when the Ottoman’s perceived invincibility and dominion over the Mediterranean were lifted. | Europe |
| Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt | Gubec's Rebellion | 16th | 28 January 1573 | 9 February 1573 | The Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt, also known as Gubec’s Rebellion or Gubec's Peasant Uprising, took place in the Kingdom of Croatia which was then part of the Habsburg Empire. Many peasants living in modern-day Croatia and Slovenia were living in difficult conditions, exacerbated by cruel treatment by the ruling classes, increased taxes and Ottoman-led raids and wars. The uprising, led among others by Matija Gubec, was widespread and remarkably well organised, with a political agenda that would replace the nobility with peasant officials. However, the revolt was defeated and retribution was brutal. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595 | | 16th | 18 January 1590 | 18 May 1595 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595 was fought between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden. As a result of the Livonian War, which ended in 1582, Russia had lost many fortresses and surrounding territories to the Swedish King John III. When the Truce of Plussa, signed after the Livonian War, expired in 1590, the Russians launched a quick military campaign that allowed them to regain control of the lands they had previously lost. Although the Swedes tried to overturn this by sending troops to the region, they were unable to push the Russians back and a peace treaty followed. | Europe |
| Treaty of Teusina | Eternal Peace with Sweden | 16th | 18 May 1595 | | The Treaty of Teusina, Tyavzin or Tyavzino, also known in Russia as the Eternal Peace with Sweden, was signed by the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden, ending the Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595. The treaty revised some of the terms of the Treaty of Plussa, an earlier treaty signed in 1583. It declared the restoration of the borders between Sweden and Russia to those predating the Livonian War. As such, Russia would regain control over Korela, lam, Kopor’e, and Ivangorod. In return, the Swedes were given the territories of Estonia and Narva. | Europe |
| Nine Years' War | Tyrone's Rebellion | 16th, 17th | May 1593 | 30 March 1603 | The Nine Years' War, also known as Tyrone's Rebellion, refers to the Irish Alliance’s uprising against the Kingdom of England’s increasing presence in Ireland. One key factor that triggered the conflict was the spread of protestantism in Irish territory. The Irish Alliance, led by Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone and Hugh Roe O'Donnell of Tyrconnell, knew that the English were particularly vulnerable at this time and launched an island-wide campaign, supported by the Kingdom of Spain. Despite some early Irish victories, the English managed to repress the rebellion. | Europe |
| Treaty of Mellifont | Articles of Mellifont | 17th | 30 March 1603 | | The Treaty of Mellifont, also known as the Articles of Mellifont, was signed by representatives of the Kingdom of England and Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone, who led the Irish Alliance. It ended the Nine Years' War, also known as Tyrone's Rebellion, and followed the Burning of Dungannon which effectively made Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone a fugitive. However, he managed to hold out for a while longer and secure the treaty on relatively good terms. The surviving Ulster chiefs, including himself, were all pardoned, though they had to swear loyalty to the English crown, and renounce their Irish titles and private armies. | Europe |
| Cudgel War | Club War | 16th | 25 November 1596 | 24 February 1597 | The Cudgel War, also known as the Club War, was a peasant uprising in Finland which at the time was part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The Finnish peasantry had suffered through many conflicts and disputes which also led to them being taxed more heavily. Combined with religious disputes and poor social conditions, the peasantry of Finland rose up armed with cudgels, flails and maces. It was the last peasant revolt in Europe in which a local church was attacked. After several skirmishes, the rebellion was finally crushed by cavalry in Ilmajoki. | Europe |
| War against Sigismund | Swedish Civil War | 16th | 1597 | 1599 | The War against Sigismund, or the Swedish Civil War, was an uprising of protestant Swedish separatists against Sigismund Vasa III, who was King of both Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund had become increasingly unpopular in Sweden partly due to his Catholic faith and long absences from the country. The in facto ruler of Sweden was Duke Charles, later King Charles IX of Sweden, who led a rebellion against Sigismund. Under his leadership, the Swedes won a decisive victory at the Battle of Stångebro and Sigismund was deposed on 24 July 1599. | Europe |
| Polish–Swedish War | | 17th | 1600 | 16/26 September 1629 | The Polish-Swedish War was fought between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The direct cause of this conflict was the Swedish Civil War, also known as the War against Sigismund, which broke the union between Sweden and the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The conflict can be divided in four separate stages, all fought over disputes with regard to territory and the Swedish throne. After much fighting, the Kingdom of Sweden claimed victory, having made some minor territorial gains in the Baltics. | Europe |
| Truce of Altmark | Treaty of Stary Targ | 17th | 16/26 September 1629 | | The Truce of Altmark, or Treaty of Stary Targ, was signed by the Kingdom of Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ending the fourth and final stage of the Polish–Swedish War. The terms of this treaty favoured the Swedes who gained a large part of Livonia, including the important port city of Riga. The Swedes would also receive tax payments from the Commonwealth, allowing them to keep trading on the Baltic Sea. This treaty is sometimes regarded as a diplomatic failure of the Commonwealth, since it had won a clear victory at Honigfeld just before the treaty was signed. | Europe |
| Bocskai Uprising | Bocskai's War of Independence | 17th | 28 September 1604 | 23 June 1606 | The Bocskai Uprising, or Bocskai's War of Independence, took place in Hungary, Transylvania and present-day Slovakia, which were then part of the Holy Roman Empire. The numerous wars with the Ottomans took a heavy toll on Hungary, Transylvania and Croatia, and many people died of famine and disease. When Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II started to persecute protestants in these regions and accused the local nobility of treason, the protestant nobleman Stephen Bocskai incited a relatively successful rebellion against imperial ruled and became Prince of Transylvania and Hungary. | Europe |
| Treaty of Vienna of 1606 | | 17th | 23 June 1606 | | The Treaty of Vienna of 1606 was signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Principality of Transylvania, ending the Bocskai Uprising caused by civil and religious unrest. As part of this treaty, Stephen Bocskai, the leader of the uprising, was formally recognised as Prince of Transylvania. The treaty also dictated that Transylvanians would be able to elect their future rulers and ensured religious freedom in Transylvania and Royal Hungary. Since Bocskai had sought the help of the Ottomans in his struggle, a treaty between the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire followed later. | Europe |
| Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618 | Dimitriads | 17th | 1605 | 11 December 1618 | The Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618, also known as the Dimitriads, primarily involved the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Tsardom of Russia was going through a political crisis known as the Time of Troubles, or Smuta, and the Polish played a part in this by supporting False Dmitris for the title of Tsar of Russia. In fact, Polish armies invaded the Tsardom, taking Moscow in 1610. Though the Polish were eventually pushed back and Russian independence was preserved, the war ended in a clear Polish victory as they gained Severia and Smolensk. | Europe |
| Truce of Deulino | | 17th | 11 December 1618 | | The Truce of Deulino was signed by the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ending the Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618. The terms of this treaty were very much in the Commonwealth’s favour, leading to its greatest geographical expansion. Despite the Commonwealth’s military and diplomatic success, the later Polish King Władysław IV still felt he had a rightful claim to the Russian throne, resulting in the resumption of hostilities after the truce expired in 1632. | Europe |
| Ingrian War | | 17th | 1610 | 27 February 1617 | The Ingrian War was fought between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire. The Russians and Swedes had entered an alliance shortly before this war to oppose the expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, at a time of great political instability within Russia. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was offered the position of Tsar, but after a popular revolt in Moscow, this title was claimed soon after by Mikhail Romanov. This led to a war won by Sweden, which seized large territories including Ingria and Kexholm, and thereby denied the Russians access to the Baltic sea. | Europe |
| Treaty of Stolbovo | | 17th | 27 February 1617 | | The Treaty of Stolbovo was signed by the Swedish Empire and the Tsardom of Russia, and was mediated by representatives from the Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic. It brought an end to the Ingrian War in which the Swedes had made use of the political instability within Russia to expand their territory. Under the terms of this treaty, Sweden would return Novgorod and other parts in Northern Russia, but managed to retain Karelia and Ingria, which are situated between today’s Estonia and Finland. This meant that the Russian were cut off from the Baltic Sea, though importantly not the White Sea. | Europe |
| Kalmar War | | 17th | 1611 | 21 January 1613 | The Kalmar War was fought between the Swedish Empire and a union consisting of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway, the Duchy of Schleswig, and the Duchy of Holstein. The conflict erupted due to competing interests over trade routes in northern Europe. Sweden was looking to avoid a strait between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, controlled by Denmark–Norway, and wanted to occupy Finnmark, the area to the north of Lapland. Though no decisive victory was won, Denmark-Norway saw most successes with its small professional army and powerful navy and succeeded in taking control of Finnmark. | Europe |
| Treaty of Knäred | | 17th | 21 January 1613 | | The Treaty of Knäred was signed by the Swedish Empire and Denmark-Norway, a union including the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway, the Duchy of Schleswig and the Duchy of Holstein. It ended the Kalmar War that had led to territorial changes and which, under the terms of this treaty, were now reverted. As Denmark-Norway had gained the upper hand in the war, the Swedes had to pay the staggering sum of $1 million Rixdollars for the return of Älvsborg, its only North Sea port. The Swedes also had to recognise Danish sovereignty over Finnmark. | Europe |
| Uskok War | War of Gradisca | 17th | December 1615 | 26 September 1617 | The Uskok War, or War of Gradisca, was fought between the Republic of Venice, Dutch Republic, and Kingdom of England on one side and the Habsburg Empire, Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Spain on the other. The war is named after the Uskoks, Croatian pirates whose mission it was to take revenge on the Ottomans. When Venetian merchants started trading Ottoman goods to retain their profits from maritime trade, they became a target for the Uskoks. The ensuing Uskok War led to the eviction of the Uskoks from Senj, which greatly reduced threat to Venetian trade. | Europe |
| Treaty of Madrid (1617) | | 17th | 26 September 1617 | | The Treaty of Madrid (1617) was signed by representatives from the Habsburg Empire and the Republic of Venice, concluding the Uskok War. Though peace negotiations had taken place continuously during the war, this treaty only came about thanks to mediation by the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Papal States. Under its terms, the Venetians agreed to withdraw from Imperial territory while the Habsburgs promised to disband the Uskoks and destroy their fortresses. Consequently, this treaty eliminated Uskok piracy in the Adriatic Sea which had impacted Venetian mercantile interests. | Europe |
| Thirty Years’ War | | 17th | 23 May 1618 | 24 October 1648 | The Thirty Years’ War was one of the largest, most devastating wars in European history involving (among others) the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire, Denmark-Norway, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of Bohemia, Dutch Republic, and Kingdom of France. There were many different causes for this pan-European conflict, but perhaps the most prominent was the Reformation sweeping across the continent. There were no clear victors, but this conflict had far-reaching consequences for the future of the European continent as it dramatically shifted the balance of power and consolidated Protestantism. | Europe |
| Treaty of Osnabrück | | 17th | 24 October 1648 | | The Treaty of Osnabrück was primarily signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Swedish Empire, concluding both the Eighty Years' War and Thirty Years’ War. It was negotiated in parallel with the Peace of Münster, though it is not a part of this agreement. Together, these two treaties are referred to as the Peace of Westphalia. The preceding pan-European wars had ravaged the continent and completely shifted European power balance. The Peace of Westphalia, and therefore this treaty, is a seminal event in the development of international law and has shaped Europe’s order today. | Europe |
| Smolensk War | | 17th | 1632 | 14 June 1634 | The Smolensk War was fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. Russia had just emerged from a period of political turmoil, also known as the Time of Troubles, and had lost a substantial amount of territory, including Smolensk, in a previous war that was concluded with the Truce of Deulino. King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland died in 1632 and, sensing weakness, the Russians attacked Smolensk in an attempt to reclaim it. Although they reached Smolensk, they were defeated by a Polish army that managed to siege the besiegers. | Europe |
| Treaty of Polyanovka | | 17th | 14 June 1634 | | The Treaty of Polyanovka was signed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, ending the Smolensk War. It was signed after the Russians held back the Commonwealth during the siege of Belaya. Under the terms of this treaty, King Władysław IV Vasa would relinquish his claims to the Russian throne in return for a large Russian war indemnity. The Russians also gained control over the border town of Serpeysk and its immediate surrounding, which was mainly a gesture of good will from Władysław for Russians to join an anti-Swedish alliance, which ultimately failed. | Europe |
| Wars of the Three Kingdoms | | 17th | 1639 | 1652 | The Wars of the Three Kingdoms involved the Kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland. King James VI of Scotland became ruler of England and Ireland and unified the three kingdoms as King James I. His son, Charles I, believed that he should rule without a parliament, which led to internal dissent and armed rebellion. The civil war spanned a period of 14 years and eventually led to the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, in which England, and later Scotland and Ireland were governed as a republic. | Europe |
| Portuguese Restoration War | Acclamation War | 17th | 1 December 1640 | 13 February 1668 | The Portuguese Restoration War, also known as the Acclamation War, was fought between the Kingdom of Portugal, supported by the Kingdoms of France and England, and the Spanish Empire. Before this conflict, Spain and Portugal were ruled by the same monarch as part of the Iberian Union. When King Phillip III of Portugal (Philip IV of Spain) favoured the Spanish territories over the Portuguese ones and raised taxes for Portuguese merchants, a civil war broke out in Portugal. After several episodes of warfare, the Portuguese claimed independence and established a new dynasty with King John IV. | Europe |
| Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 | | 17th | 13 February 1668 | | The Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 was signed by the Kingdom of Portugal and the Spanish Empire and mediated by the English ambassador Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich. It ended the Portuguese Restoration War, also known as the Acclamation War, in which the Portuguese strove for independence. Under the terms of this treaty, independence was granted to Portugal and the Braganza dynasty was officially recognised as the legitimate rulers of Portugal. In return, Portugal ceded Ceuta to Spain, strategically located at the Strait of Gibraltar on the north coast of Africa. | Europe |
| Khmelnytsky Uprising | Cossack-Polish War | 17th | 1648 | 1657 | The Khmelnytsky Uprising, also known as the Cossack-Polish War and the Khmelnytsky Massacre, was a Cossack rebellion that took place in today’s Ukraine which was then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was caused by a variety of reasons, including Catholic expansionism that clashed with the Orthodox traditions of the Cossack population. Bohdan Khmelnytsky managed to unite the Cossacks and Tatars and led a brutal revolt, wiping out the Polish nobility as well as the Jewish population in modern-day Ukraine. The Cossack Hetmanate was established under the protection of the Tsardom of Russia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Hadiach | | 17th | 16 September 1658 | | The Treaty of Hadiach was signed by representatives of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Cossack Hetmanate at the end of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. During this conflict, Bohdan Khmelnytsky had founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which was later placed under the protection of Russia. Under the terms of this treaty, the Commonwealth would have been expanded to not only include Poland and Lithuania but also Ukraine. However, this never came to be as the treaty was poorly received in the Cossack Hetmanate as many felt Russia was a more natural ally, and which led to more conflicts. | Europe |
| Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars | | 18th | 1794 | 1816 | The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars were fought between the British Empire and several indigenous clans living in the area to the west of Sydney, Australia. Since the First Fleet arrived in 1788 at Port Jackson, marking the start of Australia’s colonisation, the settlers gradually started to claim more land. The construction of farms along the Hawkesbury River caused mostly guerrilla warfare with indigenous clans. British Forces, including armed settlers, defeated the clans living along the Hawkesbury and Nepean rivers, which led to the further expansion of European settlement. | Oceania |
| War of Southern Queensland | Black War of Resistance | 19th | 1843 | 1855 | The War of Southern Queensland, also referred to as the Black War of Resistance, was a conflict between the United Tribes, an alliance of Aboriginal tribes living in Southeast Queensland, and the British Empire. After decades of skirmishes, mistrust and resentment of British rule, an alliance of at least 13 indigenous tribes was formed, and it is this organisation that sets this conflict apart from more irregular, small-scale engagements. The United Tribes managed to impede further European settlement, but only temporarily as resistance eventually collapsed. | Oceania |
| Black War | Tasmanian War | 19th | 1824 | 1831 | The Black War, or Tasmanian War, was fought between the British Empire and Tasmanian Aboriginals over control of Tasmania. It is one of the most brutal frontier wars in history and was fought in guerrilla style. It was caused by the significant influx of European settlers in the 1820s, leading to a rise in conflicts between the indigenous people and ever-increasing settlers. The war almost wiped out the entire Tasmanian Aboriginal population and is sometimes regarded as genocide, because of the frequent mass killings, which took place especially after martial law against the Aboriginal people was declared in 1828. | Oceania |
| 1878 Insurrection in New Caledonia | Great Revolt of 1878 | 19th | 1878 | 1879 | The 1878 Insurrection in New Caledonia, or the Great Revolt of 1878, was fought between the Kanakas (the native people of New Caledonia) and the French Empire. New Caledonia was annexed as a French colony in 1853 and thereafter colonised by settlers and missionaries. The insurrection of the native Kanakas was caused by the fact that a French delimitation commission decided to remove land from the Kanakas and open it up for further settlement. Partly due to the quick mobilisation of the European settlers, the insurrection was put down and colonisation of the island continued. | Oceania |
| Flagstaff War | Hōne Heke's Rebellion | 19th | 11 March 1845 | 11 January 1846 | The Flagstaff War, also known as Hōne Heke's Rebellion, was fought between the British Empire and a Māori tribe known as the Ngāpuhi. A clan within this tribe actually sided with the British, but Hōne Heke commanded a large part of the Ngāpuhi against the British. They perceived the expanding British authority in the Bay of Islands as a threat and objected to the relocation of the capital to Auckland. Several battles were fought, and during the war, the British flagstaff - a symbol of imperial power - was cut down four times. The outcome of this war is mostly considered as indecisive. | Oceania |
| First Taranaki War | North Taranaki War | 19th | 17 March 1860 | 18 March 1861 | The First Taranaki War, or the North Taranaki War, was fought between the British Empire and a Māori tribe known as the Te Ātiawa. A minor chief within this tribe had sold land to the British, but the senior chief Wiremu Kīngi Te Rangitāke opposed this sale and took up arms against the British. British imperial troops were brought in from Australia and outnumbered the Māori. The outcome of this conflict was quite indecisive, and the number of casualties was similar on both sides. It ended in a ceasefire, negotiated by a senior member of the Kīngitanga, without specific peace terms. | Oceania |
| Second Taranaki War | | 19th | April 1863 | November 1866 | The Second Taranaki War was fought between the British Empire and the Taranaki Māori tribe between 1863 and 1866. Conflict erupted when 300 men of the 57th Regiment took possession of tribal land south-west of New Plymouth. The Te Ātiawa, Taranaki, Ngāti Ruanui, Ngāti Rauru and Whanganui tribes that occupied this land viewed this as an act of war. Brutal ‘scorched earth’ warfare against the Māori left the tribes weakened and intimidated, resulting in an uneasy period of peace, until the Third Taranaki War in June 1868. | Oceania |
| Tītokowaru's War | Third Taranaki War | 19th | June 1868 | March 1869 | Tītokowaru's War, or the Third Taranaki War, was fought between the British Empire and two Māori tribes, the Ngāti Ruanui and Ngāruahine. The Māori were led by Riwha Tītokowaru, who had vowed to protect Māori lands from being claimed by European settlers moving into the Taranaki region. The ferocity with which the numerically small band of Māori warriors fought led to surprising victories. Tītokowaru’s campaigns have been described as the greatest threat to European dominance in New Zealand. However, the end of the war was quite abrupt with Tītokowaru's army falling apart overnight. | Oceania |
| Franco-Tahitian War | | 19th | 1844 | 1874 | The Franco-Tahitian War was fought between the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of Tahiti, supported by the Society Islands in the South Pacific. The Kingdom of Tahiti was converted to Protestant Christianity by English missionaries, and when Queen Pōmare IV of Tahiti expelled French Catholic missionaries from the island, France retaliated. Under the guise of ensuring the safety of French Catholics living in Tahiti, they forced the Tahitians to become a French protectorate. This led to a guerrilla-style conflict which was decisively won by the French at the Battle of Punaruu. | Oceania |
| Wellington and Whanganui Wars | | 19th | 1846 | 21 February 1848 | The Wellington and Whanganui Wars were fought between the British Empire and Māori tribes living in the Wellington area and along the Whanganui River. From 1839 onwards, European settlers started moving into the Wellington area, leading to land disputes between the settlers and local Māori tribes. When shots were fired at the Hutt Valley in 1846, the British declared martial law. The Māori were led by Ngati Haua-te-Rangi chief Te Mamaku, commanding around 600 warriors against the British 58th and 65th regiment. He was involved in the peace talks after several inconclusive battles. | Oceania |
| Bougainville Conflict | Bougainville Civil War | 20th, 21st | 1 December 1988 | 30 August 2001 | The Bougainville Conflict, also known as the Bougainville Civil War, was an armed conflict on the islands of Bougainville between those who wanted independence for Bougainville and those who were loyal to the Government of Papua New Guinea. It was the most violent conflict in the Oceania after the Second World War fuelled by a desire for self-rule, land disputes and the adverse environmental effects of mining operations. After many casualties, sometimes estimated around 15,000–20,000 Bougainvilleans, the Autonomous Bougainville Government was established. | Oceania |
| Second Samoan Civil War | | 19th | 1887 | 2 December 1899 | The Second Samoan Civil War was a conflict on the Samoan Islands involving the German Empire, United States of America, and the British Empire. These imperial powers had an economic interest in Sāmoa and heavily influenced the choice of Tafa’ifa, ruler of Samoa. In 1898, the role of Tafa’ifa was contested between Mata’afa Iosefo, backed by the Germans, and Malietoa Tanumafili I, supported by the British and Americans. It led to a violent civil war marked by the use of heavy artillery provided by imperial naval forces. It resulted in the partitioning of the Samoan archipelago. | Oceania |
| East Cape War | Hauhau Rising on the East Coast | 19th | 13 April 1865 | 12 October 1866 | The East Cape War, or Hauhau Rising on the East Coast, was a conflict involving the British Empire, Kūpapa or ‘loyal’ Māori, and the Whakatohea, Urewera and Ngai Tama Māori. It was fuelled by Māori resentment of the British resulting from their imperial land confiscations, along with the rise of the Hauhau extremists within the Pai Marire religion that mixed biblical and Māori beliefs. The war started after the ritual killing of the missionary Carl Volkner and Hauhaus entering Ngāti Porou territory. Several armed conflicts ensued, which led imperial forces to use this as justification to annex more Māori land. | Oceania |
| Musket Wars | Potato Wars | 19th | 1807 | 1837 | The Musket Wars, also known as the Potato Wars, were fought between numerous Māori Iwi throughout New-Zealand. When the Māori acquired muskets from European settlers in the early 19th century, it marked the end of traditional warfare using clubs and blades, and the beginning of more devastating, deadly warfare. The introduction of the potato and its far-reaching consequences on the Māori economy have also been suggested as a cause for this New-Zealand wide, inter-tribal conflict that led to territorial gains and losses for various tribes and claimed many Māori lives. | Oceania |
| Leewards War | Annexation of the Leeward Island | 19th | 1880 | 1897 | The Leewards War, or the Annexation of the Leeward Islands, was a diplomatic and armed conflict between the French Third Republic and the kingdoms of Raiatea-Tahaa, Huahine and Bora Bora. These island kingdoms were part of the Society Islands in present-day French Polynesia and resisted French rule throughout the 19th century. Attempts to thwart German imperial expansion in the Pacific led the French to place the islands under a protectorate in 1880 and formally annex them in 1888. This led to violent uprisings in the three island kingdoms that were however suppressed by the French. | Oceania |
| First Fiji Expedition | | 19th | October 1855 | October 1855 | The First Fiji Expedition was a conflict between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Fiji. It was preceded by several incidents involving American commercial agents based in Fiji. To protect American economic interest on the island, a warship was sent under the command of Edward B. Boutwell. The Americans demanded financial compensation from Seru Espenisa Cakobau, the Vunivalu of Bau and self-proclaimed Tui Viti (‘King’) of Fiji. These demands were not met, resulting in an armed conflict and casualties on both sides, but no clear outcome. | Oceania |
| Second Fiji Expedition | Vandalia Expedition | 19th | 6 October 1859 | 16 October 1859 | The Second Fiji Expedition, or the Vandalia Expedition, was a conflict between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Fiji. The direct cause of this conflict was the killing and cannibalisation of two American traders in Fiji. With their economic interest in Fiji, the Americans sent the sloop-of-war Vandalia and a small force under the command of Lieutenant Charles Caldwell to attack the village of Somatti, protected by 300 native warriors. The Americans achieved a decisive victory for which the Lieutenant received much acclaim. | Oceania |
| Hungarian-Romanian War | | 20th | November 1918 | August 1919 | The Hungarian-Romanian War was a conflict between Hungary and Romania of complex and plural motivations and causes. Some of these included the Allied Powers’ wanting Romania to disarm Hungary, especially if an occupation would provide defences against Bolshevik forces. There were also tensions between ethnic and political groups in Transylvania (present-day Romania),which had unified with Hungary in December 1918; part of Romania’s goal was to protect ethnic Romanians, but it was also eager for territorial gains. | Europe |
| German Revolution | November Revolution | 19th | 3 November 1918 | 11 August 1919 | The German Revolution, also known as the November Revolution, was a civil war within the former German Empire. It emerged out of the defeat of the German imperial military in the First World War; what began as a naval rebellion developed into a full-blown public revolution against the imperial monarchy. The war was marked by a split in political vision between the two leading socialist political parties, concluding with the creation of a democratic parliamentary republic. | Europe |
| Turkish War of Independence | | 20th | 19 May 1919 | 24 July 1923 | The Turkish War of Independence was a conflict between Allied forces and Turkey following the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of the First World War. The conflict is often described either as a response by Turkish nationalist forces to encroaching Greek territorial occupation in Turkey, or as a violent nationalist retaliation to Allied peacekeeping efforts in Anatolia. The war led to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. | Europe |
| Husino Rebellion | Husino Miners’ Revolt | 20th | 21 December 1920 | 28 December 1920 | The Husino Rebellion, also known as the Husino Miners’ Revolt, was a conflict comprising a miners’ strike and armed rebellion against industrial slavery by workers from the regions of Tuzla, Breza, and Zenica in what was the recently created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Around 7,000 miners took strike action when their demand for wage increases was refused. The local governments reacted with brutal force, suppressing the rebellion through heavily armed battalions. | Europe |
| Slutsk Uprising | Slutsk Defence Action | 20th | 27 November 1920 | 31 December 1920 | The Slutsk Uprising, also known as the Slutsk Defence Action, was a conflict between Belarussian nationalists in the city of Slutsk and the Soviet Red Army. It has been framed variously as an agitation amongst local Slutsk peasantry against the redistribution of land under Bolshevist agrarian policy, a nationalist move for Belarussian independence in the face of ongoing Slutsk occupation by Polish and Soviet troops during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1920, and an armed border skirmish. | Europe |
| Austrian Civil War | February Uprising | 20th | 12 February 1934 | 16 February 1934 | The Austrian Civil War, also known as the February Uprising, was a conflict between socialists and government forces in the First Austrian Republic. The war emerged out a declaration by the chancellor of the Christian Social Party government that parliament had ceased to function and could not be reconvened, allowing the party to govern by decree based on a 1917 emergency law. Socialist resistance was ultimately overpowered by the intervention of Austrian armed forces. | Europe |
| First Cod War | First Coastal War | 20th | 1 September 1958 | 11 March 1961 | The First Cod War, also known as the First Coastal War, was a conflict between Britain and Iceland overfishing rights in Icelandic waters. Britain had been fishing up to but not including Iceland’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ),but Iceland later extended the scope of their EEZ to include regions where British ships had been fishing. Iceland was concerned to preserve its fishery resources, while Britain sought to enforce the previous EEZ as it was economically advantageous to Britain. | Europe |
| Corsican Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 4 May 1976 | Ongoing | The Corsican Conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Corsican separatists, fronted by the National Liberation Front of Corsica, and the French State. Agitation for Corsican independence from France emerged as a result of multiple entangled factors, including the repatriation of French citizens from Algeria to Corsica, widespread poverty, regional politics, and the dissolution of the colonial administration that had employed many Corsicans. | Europe |
| Romanian Revolution | Christmas Revolution | 20th | 16 December 1989 | 25 December 1989 | The Romanian Revolution, also known as the Christmas Revolution, was a conflict between the communist government and Romanian revolutionaries. Revolutionaries reacted against the Romanian Communist Party leader Nicolae Ceaușescu, whose austerity policies had driven Romania into economic decline, and who suppressed opposition with violence through the state’s secret police force. Revolutionary forces were ultimately successful, and the Socialist Republic of Romania was dissolved, leading also to Ceaușescu’s execution. | Europe |
| Spanish Civil War | | 20th | 17 July 1936 | 1 April 1939 | The Spanish Civil War was a civil conflict between Spanish Republicans and Nationalists. However, it has also been understood as having plural causes and agendas, including struggles across registers of class, religion, governmental systems, and political ideologies. The Nationalists, ultimately led by General Franco, were victorious, and the Spanish State was established under Franco’s rule. The war is notable for the political division it induced, as well as for the many atrocities that took place. | Europe |
| Hungarian Revolution of 1956 | Hungarian Uprising | 20th | 23 October 1956 | 4 November 1956 | The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, also known as the Hungarian Uprising, was a revolution by Hungarian people against the geopolitical control of the Soviet Union in Hungary. Control of the Hungarian People’s Republic government by Soviet forces led to the imposition of Stalinist policies and the suppression of civil liberties. Hungarians rebelled against this, whilst the Soviet Union fought to limit an independent Hungarian government, out of fear that this would destabilise the Soviet bloc. | Europe |
| Basque Conflict | Spain-ETA Conflict | 20th | 31 July 1959 | Dates contested | The Basque Conflict, also known as the Spain-ETA Conflict, was a conflict between Spain and separatist groups rallying under the collective Basque National Liberation Movement label. The latter sought independence of the Basque Country from Spain and France and to reclaim a Basque identity that had been repressed during the Spanish Civil War. Different views on the ETA – a terrorist group or a nationalist force – continues to influence which name is used for the conflict. | Europe |
| Treaty of Varkiza | Varkiza Peace Agreement | 20th | 12 February 1945 | | The Treaty of Varkiza, also known as the Varkiza Peace Agreement, was signed in Varkiza near Athens on 12 February 1945. Signed by the Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece, the agreement set out the terms of peace following civil unrest during the Dekemvriana clashes. The treaty reinstated various civil liberties, including freedom of the press, and required the release of prisoners held by the Communist Party and the disbandment of its military arm. The Greek government agreed to form a national army in its place. | Europe |
| Transnistria War | Moldova and Transnistria Conflict | 20th | 2 November 1990 | 21 July 1992 | The Transnistria War, also known as the Moldova and Transnistria Conflict, is an ongoing, frozen conflict between Moldovan forces and separatist Transnistrians. The conflict broke out in November 1990, resulting in extensive forced migration. The ceasefire brokered in July 1992 continues to hold; however, Transnistria remained under heavy Russian influence. The conflict has subsequently come under renewed scrutiny with the Russie-Ukraine war. | Europe |
| Croatian War of Independence | Greater-Serbian Aggression Against Croatia | 20th | March 1991 | 12 November 1995 | The Croatian War of Independence, also known as the Greater-Serbian Aggression Against Croatia, was a conflict between Croat and Serb forces over Croatian sovereignty. The Croat-supported government of Croatia declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, but this was openly rejected by the ethnic Croatian Serb minority, which subsequently declared parts of Croatian territory to be an independent Serb state. The war saw extensive forced migration and ethnic cleansing. | Europe |
| Erdut Agreement | | 20th | 12 November 1995 | | The Erdut Agreement, also known as the Basic Agreement on the Region of Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium, provided the terms of peace to end the Croatian War of Independence. The agreement provided transitional arrangements, including an interim administration, the implementation of inter-community power sharing, the return and protection of refugees, and the instalment of peacekeeping forces. | Europe |
| Kosovo War | Kosovo Conflict | 20th | 28 February 1998 | 11 June 1999 | The Kosovo War, also known as the Kosovo Conflict, was an armed conflict between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Albanian rebel group known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The KLA sought independence from the control of opposing ethnic Serbian forces and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Between 1.2 and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians were displaced during the war, which a court administered by the United Nations described as comprising a systematic campaign of terror that included murders, rapes, arsons, and severe maltreatments. | Europe |
| Kumanovo Agreement | Military Technical Agreement | 20th | 9 June 1999 | | The Kumanovo Agreement, also known as the Military Technical Agreement, effectively ended the Kosovo War and acted as a peace agreement by providing for the end of hostilities between the NATO-backed Kosovo Force and the governments of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Serbia. Its terms also authorised assistance to, and the use of military force by, the Kosovo Force in achieving the peace settlement mission. | Europe |
| Bathurst War | First Wiradjuri War of Resistance | 19th | 1822 | December 1824 | The Bathurst War, also known as the First Wiradjuri War of Resistance, was a conflict between the Wiradjuri nation and Great Britain. The settlement of British colonialists on Wiradjuri land placed enormous strain on food supplies while encroaching on sacred Wiradjuri sites. Wiradjuri resistance was met with a declaration of martial law by the New South Wales Governor Thomas Brisbane, and a so-called exterminating war that sought to massacre the Wiradjuri people. The Wiradjuri surrendered in December 1824. | Oceania |
| Coniston Massacre | | 20th | 14 August 1928 | 18 October 1928 | The Coniston Massacre was the outcome of a series of punitive expeditions, in reaction to the murder of a dingo trapper for breaking Aboriginal law. The expedition comprised both civilians and police. The death toll remains unclear; official records estimate around 31 Aboriginal people were killed, but a combination of alternative sources and Aboriginal oral histories suggest the number could be as high as 200. | Oceania |
| Caledon Bay Crisis | Caledon Bay Murders | 20th | September 1932 | 1934 | The Caledon Bay crisis, also known as the Caledon Bay murders, comprised a series of murders by Yolngu men in northern Australia, and the subsequent conflict with Australian settlers. In September 1932, five Japanese trepang fishermen were killed, allegedly by Yolngu men. Pressure from the Japanese Government and public speculation led to the launch of a punitive expedition, aimed at finding the alleged perpetrators. The expedition lead to clashes between Aboriginal peoples and settlers. | Oceania |
| Corn Field Raids of 1827-1828 | | 19th | Early 1827 | 1828 | The Corn Field Raids of 1827-1828 was one of the conflicts that were known collectively as the Australian frontier wars. It took place in the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement, in present-day Brisbane. Aboriginal groups plundered the penal colony’s food sources across various sites and destructed maize fields, possibly to starve out the colony inhabitants and as a protest against continuing settler occupation. Some Aboriginal raiders were killed or injured by penal colony staff. | Oceania |
| Castle Hill Convict Rebellion | Castle Hill Rising | 19th | 4 March 1804 | 5 March 1804 | The Castle Hill Convict Rebellion, also known as the Castle Hill Rising, was a conflict between government troops and convicts that took place in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales. The convicts were predominantly Irish political offenders who had been involved in the Battle of Vinegar Hill in Ireland and had been transported to the colony. The rebels planned to escape Castle Hill, take charge of a ship, and return to Ireland. Martial law was declared, and the rebels were suppressed. Sources suggest that between 12 and 39 rebels were killed. | Oceania |
| Cooking Pot Uprising | Cooking Pot Riot | 19th | 1 July 1846 | 1 July 1846 | The Cooking Pot Uprising, also known as the Cooking Pot Riot, was a conflict that took place on 1 July 1846 between convicts held on the penal colony of Norfolk Island, Australia and its colonial administrators. Convicts mutinied against the withdrawal of privileges granted to convicts by a new settlement commandant, Major Childs. The changes included the prohibition of personal cooking and abolition of garden plots previously granted to convicts to grow vegetables. A number of colony staff were killed during the uprising. | Oceania |
| Cyprus Mutiny | | 19th | 14 August 1829 | 14 August 1829 | The Cyprus Mutiny was an escape effort by transported convicts destined for a penal colony in present-day Tasmania, Australia. The convicts aboard the British government-owned vessel named Cyprus seized the ship and sailed to Canton, China, where they claimed to be castaways or shipwreck survivors. Some of the men travelled back to Britain. Two people were tried and hanged for piracy in London; three were returned to an Australian penal colony. | Oceania |
| Darwin Rebellion | Darwin Uprising | 20th | 17 December 1918 | 20 February 1919 | The Darwin Rebellion, also known as the Darwin Uprising, was a period of unrest in Darwin, Australia. On 17 December 1918 workers across Darwin went on strike over a lack of political representation following the Northern Territory’s transfer to the Commonwealth in 1911, which resulted in the Northern Territory losing all voting rights in the Australian government, prices soaring, and job losses. An effigy of the NT administrator Dr Gilruth was burned, and his resignation was demanded. | Oceania |
| Eureka Rebellion | Eureka Stockade | 19th | 1851 | 3 December 1854 | The Eureka Rebellion, also known as the Eureka Stockade, was an uprising of goldminers in present-day Victoria, Australia, against administrative policies of the colonial government. Key grievances were mining permit requirements, especially as gold retrieval began to fall, and aggressive licence enforcement. Miners organized along military lines and built a stockade that was attacked by government forces on 3 December 1854. In the ensuing armed clash, it is estimated that 22 miners and five government troopers were killed. | Oceania |
| Rum Rebellion | Great Rebellion | 19th | 26 January 1808 | 1 January 1810 | The Rum Rebellion, also known as the Great Rebellion in Australia, was a coup d’état orchestrated by the New South Wales Corps against Governor William Bligh. It is the first and only military coup in Australian history. Grievances against Bligh were complex but included his attempts to limit the dominance of military elites. The Corps arrested Bligh and imposed military rule until Major-General Lachlan Macquarie arrived from Britain and took over as governor in 1810. | Oceania |
| Nauruan Civil War | Nauru War | 19th | 1878 | 1888 | The Nauruan Civil War, also known as the Nauru War, was an armed struggle between supporters of King Aweida and rebel supporters of a rival to the Nauruan throne spread across 12 indigenous tribes. The war began against the backdrop of European introduction of firearms to the island, which is widely documented as having exacerbated the intensity and duration of the conflict. The war ended with the annexation of Nauru by the German Empire, with King Aweida restored to the throne. It is estimated that the conflict reduced the Nauruan population from 1400 to 900. | Oceania |
| Girls’ War | | 19th | March 1830 | Date contested | The Girls’ War was a conflict between northern and southern hapū within the Ngāpuhi tribe in present-day Russell, New Zealand. The conflict was born out of existing inter-hapū rivalry and the escalation of a minor disagreement to the exchange of threats and curses. Northern forces clashed with southern forces, during which time northern Ngāpuhi people largely retained control over the region. The conflict is documented as having concluded through missionary-led peace negotiations. | Oceania |
| Sealers’ War | War of the Shirt | 19th | Late 1810 | 1821 | The Sealers’ War, also known as the War of the Shirt, was a conflict between Māori inhabitants of present-day New Zealand and European sealers. Sources suggest that the conflict emerged out of a misunderstanding between the two parties, which resulted in the killing of a Māori chief by the sealers. Subsequent clashes occurred between Māori and incoming sealers until 1823 when a peace was brokered, allowing peaceful contact and trade between the Māori and incoming traders to resume. | Oceania |
| Ngāti Raukawa-Ngāti Kahu-pungapunga War | | 17th | Mid-17th century | Mid-17th century | The Ngāti Raukawa-Ngāti Kahu-pungapunga War was a conflict between the Ngāti Raukawa and the Ngāti Kahu-pungapunga that took place in the mid-17th century in present-day New Zealand. War broke out following the murder of Korokore, the sister of a prominent Ngāti Raukawa rangatira (chieftain) named Whāita, by the Ngāti Kahu-pungapunga. Whāita summoned a war party, which attacked Ngāti Kahu-pungapunga forts and forced their retreat. The conflict ended in Ngāti Raukawa victory and territorial expansion. | Oceania |
| War of Te Kupenga | | 19th | Early 1820s | Early 1820s | The War of Te Kupenga was a conflict in early 1820s New Zealand between the Ngāti Te Whatuiāpiti and Ngāti Hinepare, on one side, against the Ngāti Tūwharetoa. The conflict began over a Ngāti Te Whatuiāpiti marriage disupute; the Ngāti Te Whatuiāpiti had two chiefs, who betrothed their children in an attempt to reunify the chieftan branches. However, the betrothed daughter married a chief from Ngāti Te Rangiita instead. A war party was assembled and launched in an attempt to seek vengeance for this ‘slight’. | Oceania |
| Dog Tax War | Hokianga Dog Tax Rebellion | 19th | April 1898 | May 1898 | The Dog Tax War, also known as the Hokianga Dog Tax Rebellion, was a conflict between a group of Northern Māori people and British colonial officials. The conflict had various causes, all relating to the encroachment of colonial administrative and legal policy over Māori autonomy. These included seasonal restrictions on bird hunting and the imposition of taxes on dogs. A truce was brokered, preventing armed clashes between the two sides. | Oceania |
| Wairau Affray | Wairau Massacre | 19th | 17 June 1843 | 17 June 1843 | The Wairau Affray, also known as the Wairau Massacre, was an armed conflict between colonial settlers and Māori peoples. Fighting broke out after the New Zealand Company tried to clear the Māori from Wairau Valley land, which the Māori maintained had not been sold to the settlers. Officials sought to arrest the resisting Māori chiefs. 22 settlers and four Māori were killed. An inquest found the land had in fact not been sold to settlers. | Oceania |
| Bombardment of Upolu | Bombardment of Luatuanu’u | 19th | 24 February 1841 | 24 February 1841 | The Bombardment of Upolu, also known as the Bombardment of Luatuanu’u, was a conflict between inhabitants of the Samoan island of Upolo and members of the United States Exploring Expedition, also known as the Wilkes Expedition. The conflict broke out following the murder of a United States sailor by Upolu inhabitants and the refusal by their chief to hand over the suspects, which was in breach of an 1839 agreement. United States gunboats subsequently opened fire on the Samoans, torching an estimated 100 huts across two villages. | Oceania |
| Malaita Massacre | | 20th | November 1927 | February 1928 | The Malaita Massacre was the result of a punitive expedition led by British government officials. The expedition was initiated in response to the murder of a British Government District Officer and his deputies by Kwaio warriors, which had occurred in resistance to a tax proposed by colonial authorities. The Kwaio held that the murders were acts of defence in protection of their freedoms and sovereignty. The responding massacre was brutal, killing 60 Kwaio people and imprisoning nearly 200, many without formal charges. | Oceania |
| First Messenian War | | 8th BC | Date disputed | Date disputed | The First Messenian War was a conflict between Messenia and Sparta. The war was sparked by an existing rivalry over resources and social politics, and an initial dispute over alleged cattle theft developed into war. The dates for the conflict are disputed. Greek writer Pausanias suggests it ran between 743-724 BCE; others suggest 735 BC-715 BCE. The outcome was a Spartan conquest of Messenia. Messenians who had not fled or emigrated were held in servitude for centuries. | Europe |
| Lelantine War | War Between Chalcidians and Eretrians | 7th BC, 8th BC | c. 710 BCE | c. 650 BCE | The Lelantine War, also known as the War Between Chalcidians and Eretrians, was a conflict between the cities of Chalcis and Eretria, arising out of competition for land resources in Euboea and trade rivalry. Other city-states joined the conflict as allies to either side (Sámos, Corinth, Thessaly, and possibly Erythrae allied with Chalcis; Miletus, Megara, and possibly Chios allied with Eretria). As such, much of Greece was engaged in the war. | Europe |
| First Sacred War | Cirraean War | 6th BC | c. 590 BCE | c. 585 BCE | The First Sacred War, also known as the Cirraean War, was a conflict between the city of Kirrha and the Amphictyonic League of Delphi. Speculated causes include the Delphic attempt to take control over the Sacred Land of Apollo (known as the Kirrhaean Plain),Kirrhaean robberies on pilgrims headed to Delphi, and Kirrhaean territorial expansion into Delphic land. The coalition of Delphic allies won the war, resulting in the destruction of Kirrha and the forced migration of its inhabitants. | Europe |
| Peloponnesian War | | 5th BC | 431 BCE | 404 BCE | The Peloponnesian War was a conflict between Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, with Athens using its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese to suppress signs of unrest within its empire. The conflict ultimately led to the devastation of the previously dominant Athens economy, as well as of its countryside land. Poverty was felt across much of Greece, and a Spartan oligarchy was established in Athens from 404 BCE. | Europe |
| Peace of Nicias | | 5th BC | March 421 BCE | | The Peace of Nicias provided the terms of peace between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta, following the first half of the Peloponnesian War. Its terms included the return of Amphipolis to Athens, the end of the Athenian occupation of Pylos, the release of prisoners on both sides, and the opening of temples throughout Greece to worshippers from all cities. Few of Sparta’s allies agreed to sign the treaty, and it fell apart days after signing. In consequence, neither Amphipolis nor Pylos were returned, and fighting resumed. | Europe |
| Roman-Seleucid War | Aetolian War | 2nd BC | 192 BCE | 188 BCE | The Roman-Seleucid War, also known as the Aetolian War, was a conflict between the Roman Empire and the Seleucid Empire. The war emerged out of increasing Roman involvement in Greek affairs and disputes over their respective spheres of influence, especially in parts of present-day Turkey. The war ended with the Treaty of Apamea. | Europe |
| Treaty of Apamea | Peace of Apamea | 2nd BC | 188 BCE | | The Treaty of Apamea, also known as the Peace of Apamea, provided the terms of peace between the Roman and Seleucid empires following the Roman-Seleucid War. Formerly Seleucid territories were redistributed as Roman property and the Seleucid king, Antiochus III, was to pay a war indemnity. The Seleucid military forces were also reduced in size, and restrictions were placed on where it could travel and how it could operate. | Europe |
| Baussenque Wars | | 12th | 1144 | 1162 | The Baussenque Wars were a series of conflicts between the House of Barcelona and the House of Beaux. The origins of the conflict lay in a power struggle for control over Provence, a crisis over succession in the first ruling dynasty of Provence, and the ambitions of the House of Beaux. The war is sometimes divided into three distinct phases, the last of which saw victory for the House of Barcelona. | Europe |
| Byzantine Civil War of 1341-1347 | Second Palaiologan Civil War | 14th | 1341 | 1347 | The Byzantine Civil War of 1341-1347, also known as the Second Palaiologan Civil War, was a conflict over the succession to the Byzantine Empire following the death of Andronikos III. The conflict is historically described as having split Byzantine society across class lines, but more recent research has suggested that this was not the case. While the war ended with a peace settlement, the war contributed to accelerating the decline of the Byzantine Empire. | Europe |
| Count’s Feud | Count’s War | 16th | 1534 | 1536 | The Count’s Feud, also known as the Count’s War, was a conflict between Danish powers for succession to the throne following the death of King Frederick in 1533. It was fought between the Catholic former King Christian II, who had ruled until his deposition in 1523, and King Frederick’s son, the Protestant Christian III. Christian III was victorious, partly by taking advantage of Swedish naval power, which enabled him to suppress revolts against his rule and its imposition of Protestantism. | Europe |
| Rising of the North | Revolt of the Northern Earls | 16th | November 1569 | Early 1570 | The Rising of the North, also known as the Revolt of the Northern Earls, was a failed attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to depose Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. The conflict, which took place in 1569, was in part due to concerns over Elizabeth I’s efforts to impose Protestantism and assert the power of the Tudor state regionally in a way that threatened the feudal structures that benefitted northern nobility. Later on, in 1587, Elizabeth brought Mary to trial for treason, which led to her execution. | Europe |
| Monmouth Rebellion | Pitchfork Rebellion | 17th | 11 June 1685 | 15 July 1685 | The Monmouth Rebellion, also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion, was a conflict over competing claims to the English throne following the death of King Charles II. Charles II was initially succeeded by his brother, James II, but rebellion broke out when Charles’ illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, sought to ascend the throne and depose James. The Duke rallied dissident Protestants, who opposed James’s Catholicism. However, the rebellion was suppressed, and the Duke beheaded. | Europe |
| Kościuszko Uprising | Second Polish War | 18th | 24 March 1794 | 16 November 1794 | The Kościuszko Uprising, also known as the Second Polish War, was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth rebels. Grievances included dissent amongst the Polish Army against the King’s decision-making during the 1792 Polish-Russian War, and the second partitioning of Poland between Prussia, Russia, and the Holy Roman Empire. Rebels sought to assert Polish independence and strengthen its borders. The conflict ended in the Polish rebel surrender. | Europe |
| Finnish War | War of Finland | 19th | 21 February 1808 | 17 September 1809 | The Finnish War, also known as the War of Finland, was a conflict between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian Empire that took place between 21 February 1808 and 17 September 1809. Russia had agreed with France that it would force Sweden to partake in France’s continental blockade against Britain but failed to obtain Sweden’s compliance. Russia subsequently invaded Finland, leading to its annexation of Finland, and skirmishes in Sweden. The war concluded with the Treaty of Fredrikshamn, in which Sweden ceded the whole of Finland to Russia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Fredrikshamn | Treaty of Hamina | 19th | 17 September 1809 | | The Treaty of Fredrikshamn, also known as the Treaty of Hamina, provided the terms of peace between Sweden and the Russian Empire, ending the 1808-1809 Finnish War. Under the terms of the Treaty, Sweden ceded territories (including Finland and the Åland Islands) to Russia. These territories became the wider Grand Duchy of Finland and part of the Russian Empire. Russia pledged that Finland would be allowed to retain the Finnish language, legal system (the Swedish-Finnish Civil Code) and religion. | Europe |
| Treaty of Phoenice | Peace of Phoenice | 3rd BC | 205 BC | | The Treaty of Phoenice, also known as the Peace of Phoenice, provided the terms of peace between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedonia, ending the First Macedonian War. Under the terms of the treaty, Rome and Macedonia each retained control over specific territories. However, the peace did not last, with the Second Macedonian War breaking out a few years later, in 200 BCE. | Europe |
| Treaty of Vienna of 1809 | Treaty of Schönbrunn | 19th | 14 October 1809 | | The Treaty of Vienna, also known as the Treaty of Schönbrunn, provided the terms of peace between France and Austria following the War of the Fifth Coalition during the Napoleonic Wars where Austria had been defeated in the July 1809 Battle of Wagram. Under the terms of the treaty, Austria was obliged to impose Napoleon’s Continental System, involving a blockade against Britain. Further, it was to cede various territories to the French Empire, Bavaria, Duchy of Warsaw, and the Russian Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zadar | Treaty of Zara | 14th | 18 February 1358 | | The Treaty of Zadar, also known as the Treaty of Zara, was a peace treaty signed in Zadar, Dalmatia on 18 February 1358. It provided the terms of peace between the Venetian Republic and Louis I, King of Hungary and Croatia. Under the terms of the treaty, Venice ceded all Dalmatian territories, the Dubrovnik region and Zadar to Hungary, while Venice was permitted to keep its naval powers in the Adriatic Sea. | Europe |
| Khotyn Uprising | | 20th | January 1919 | February 1919 | The Khotyn Uprising was a Ukrainian-led rebellion by predominantly peasant locals of Khotyn County against the Romanian Kingdom which occupied the Bessarabia region, part of present-day Moldova. The rebellion was subject to fractural in-fighting between pro-Ukrainian People’s Republic and pro-Bolshevik factions, which weakened the rebels’ strength against Romanian reprisals. The rebellion was violently suppressed, and it is estimated that up to 15,000 rebels were executed. | Europe |
| Bosnian War | War in BiH | 20th | 6 April 1992 | 14 December 1995 | The Bosnian War, also known as the War in BiH, was a conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995, following the declaration of independence by Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Part of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the conflict was between a multi-ethnic population comprising Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims),Serbs, and Croats, organised around the forces of both recognised and self-proclaimed states. Rising ethnic nationalism between these communities contributed to armed struggles over territorial control, in which genocide, mass rape, and torture were committed. | Europe |
| Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina | Dayton Accords | 20th | 14 December 1995 | | The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Accords, provided the terms of peace to end the 1992-1995 Bosnian War. It set out that Bosnia and Herzegovina would exist as a single state comprising two distinct parts: the Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Republika Srpska (the Bosnian Serb Republic). The accords have been criticised for entrenching the ethnic cleansing that took place during the Bosnian War and for creating an unstable government structure. | Europe |
| Vlora War | Vlorë War | 20th | 4 June 1920 | 2 August 1920 | The Vlora War, also known as the Vlorë War, was a conflict between Albanian rebels and Italy over the sovereignty of Albania (then an Italian protectorate). Rebels sought an independent Albania, which was resisted by Italy. Italian efforts to quell the rebellion were hampered by communist revolutionary agitation and mutinies within the Italian armed forces during the same period. An armistice was agreed, whereupon Italy retained only diplomatic protection over Albania. | Europe |
| Tirana Treaty of 1920 | First Treaty of Tirana | 20th | 4 June 1920 | 3 September 1920 | The Tirana Treaty of 1920, also known as the First Treaty of Tirana, provided the terms of peace between Albanian nationalists and Italy following the Vlora War. Italy agreed to respect and defend the territorial integrity of Albania and to cease its occupation of Vlora. One exception was the island of Saseno, which Albania ceded to Italy. | Europe |
| Third Tonga Civil War | | 18th, 19th | Dates contested | Dates contested | The Third Tonga Civil War was a conflict that took place on the archipelago of Tonga in the South Pacific Ocean. Although the exact dates are contested, it occurred between the late-18th century and the early to mid-19th century. Some sources suggest that civil war broke out owing to the participation of young Tongan chiefs in the tribal wars of Fiji, while others hold that the war was the result of the murder of the 14th Tuʻi Kanokupolu king. The islands were united by King of Tona, Tāufaʻāhau, in 1845, which is sometimes given as the end date of the war. | Oceania |
| August Revolution | August General Uprising | 20th | 16 August 1945 | 2 September 1945 | The August Revolution, also known as the August General Uprising, was launched by the Việt Minh, led by the communist leader Ho Chi Minh against the Empire of Vietnam and the Empire of Japan. After nearly a century of exploitative and repressive French colonial rule, the Việt Minh rose in popularity through a desire to establish an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The Japanese occupation, while putting an end to the French colonial system, installed a Vietnamese monarchy compliant to Japan, inciting the Việt Minh to seize control of Vietnam following Japan’s defeat in WWII. | South Asia |
| First Trịnh-Nguyễn Civil War | | 17th | 1627 | 1672 | The First Trịnh-Nguyễn Civil War was a long civil war waged between two ruling families in Vietnam, the Trịnh and the Nguyễn. The war involved periods of conflicts and lengthy stalemates, and ultimately led to the emergence of a new ruling power, the Tây Sơn. During the lengthy war, the Trịnh lords hired the Dutch East India Company for the use of their ships and canons. Both sides lost many people, but with the mediation of the government of the Kangxi Emperor of China, they agreed to end the war by marking the Gianh River as the border between their lands. | South Asia |
| War in Vietnam | Southern Resistance War | 20th | 13 September 1945 | 30 March 1946 | The War in Vietnam, also known as the Southern Resistance War by the Vietnamese and codenamed Operation Masterdom by the British, was a post-WWII armed conflict between troops from British India, France and Japan against the communist Việt Minh. Led by Ho Chi Minh, the Việt Minh sought control of the southern half of Vietnam after Japan’s WWII defeat. The war resulted in the Việt Minh losing control of over half of the country and retreating to the jungles and countryside. French rule was restored and this led to the start of the First Indochina War. | South Asia |
| Lao Rebellion of 1826-1828 | Anouvong’s Rebellion | 19th | December 1826 | December 1828 | The Lao Rebellion of 1826-1828, also known as Anouvong's Rebellion or the Vientiane-Siam War, was launched by King Anouvong (Xaiya Sethathirath V) of the Kingdom of Vientiane to end the rule of Siam (present-day Thailand) and re-establish the former Lan Xang kingdom. The Siamese forces were victorious and abolished the Vientiane Kingdom, forcibly moving all its population to Siam and taking direct control of its territories by placing them under Siam's provincial administration. The kingdoms of Champasak and Lan Na were also consolidated into Siam’s administration. | South Asia |
| Cochinchina Campaign | | 19th | 1 September 1858 | 5 June 1862 | The Cochinchina Campaign was fought between an alliance of the French and Spanish Empires against the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty. Guised as a punitive response to the execution of mainly French and some Spanish Catholic missionaries, this was the opening conflict of the French conquest of Vietnam, led by France’s desire to establish French economic and military dominance in the region. The war resulted in the establishment of the French colony of Cochinchina, a development that began nearly a century of French colonial rule in Vietnam. | South Asia |
| Treaty of Saigon | | 19th | 5 June 1862 | | The Treaty of Saigon was the agreement by which France gained its preliminary foothold in the Peninsula that would become French Indochina. The treaty was signed and agreed to by Tự Đức, the last pre-colonial emperor of Vietnam and of the Nguyễn dynasty. Under the stipulations of the treaty, the French gained Saigon, as well as three of Cochinchina’s southern provinces, freedom to expand missionary activity, a protectorate over Vietnam’s foreign relations, the opening of three ports to trade, and a large cash security. Within five years they would annex the rest of Cochinchina. | South Asia |
| Sino-Vietnamese Conflicts (1979–1991) | | 20th | 17 February 1979 | 1 November 1991 | The Sino-Vietnamese conflicts of 1979–1991 were a series of conflicts involving border and naval clashes that followed the Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979. The conflicts were between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, and lasted for nearly 13 years, when relations between China and Vietnam started to become normalised, following Vietnam’s withdrawal from Cambodia and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Chinese returned Hà Giang Province back to Vietnam, but retained control of six reefs in Spratly Islands, still a disputed archipelago. | South Asia |
| Third Indochina War | Cambodia Conflict | 20th | 30 April 1975 | 23 October 1991 | The Third Indochina War, or Cambodia Conflict, was a series of conflicts that followed the Vietnam War, rooted in the Cold War and Sino-Soviet rivalry. Following the communist victory in South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge – supported by the British Empire and the USA among others – continued violent attempts to regain Vietnamese territories, which had Soviet Union support. These continued raids led to the Cambodian-Vietnamese War, the removal of the Khmer Rouge regime, the end of the Cambodian Genocide and the instalment of a pro-Vietnamese government in Cambodia. | South Asia |
| Siamese-Cambodian War (1591–1594) | | 16th | 1591 | 3 January 1594 | The Siamese-Cambodian War (1591–1594) was a military conflict fought between the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand) and the Kingdom of Cambodia. Ayutthaya forces launched an invasion when Cambodia’s Khmer forces continued raids into their territory. Cambodia was also facing religious unrest within the country, giving the Siamese an opportunity to launch an attack. Although the initial invasion failed, the Ayutthayan forces returned two years later, capturing the city Longvek and subjugating the whole country. | South Asia |
| Cambodian-Dutch War | | 17th | 27 November 1643 | 12 June 1644 | The Cambodian-Dutch War was launched after a coup brought a new Cambodian King to the throne, who was keen to drive out the Dutch East India Company from Cambodia. He ordered a massacre in Udong – where the Dutch trading post was – commandeering two of their ships, and killing 35 Dutch East India Company employees, as well as the Company's Ambassador. The remainder of the war was a naval battle on the Mekong River, which subsequently defeated the Dutch forces. It took almost two centuries for European influence in Cambodia to recover from the defeat. | South Asia |
| Cambodian–Spanish War | | 16th | 1593 | 1597 | The Cambodian–Spanish War was an attempt by Spanish and Portuguese forces (then ruled as one Iberian Union) to conquer Cambodia on behalf of the Spanish King and Christianise the Cambodian population. The Iberian forces were joined by Spanish and native Filipinos, Mexican recruits, Thai forces, as well as Japanese mercenaries. Each country had their own motivations for invading Cambodia, but ultimately this was a victory for Cambodia. However, the country came under the control of Thailand not long after. | South Asia |
| Lao–Siamese War | Siamese Invasion of Laos | 18th | December 1778 | March 1779 | The Lao-Siamese War, also known as the Siamese Invasion of Laos, was a military conflict between the Thonburi Kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand) and the Lao kingdoms of Vientiane and Champasak. The war resulted in three Lao kingdoms becoming Siamese vassal kingdoms under Siamese rule and domination in the Thonburi and following Rattanakosin periods. After the conquest of Laos, thousands of the Lao population from Vientiane and the nearby towns were deported to Central Siam, with an estimated two thirds of those making the journey dying. | South Asia |
| Philippine-American War | Philippine Insurrection | 19th, 20th | 2 June 1899 | 4 July 1902 | The Philippine-American War, also known as the Philippine Insurrection and as the Bolo War by Americans (due to the bolo knives and machetes used by the Filipino combatants),was fought when the 1898 Treaty of Paris transferred Philippine sovereignty from Spain to the United States. The Treaty did not acknowledge Philippines' declaration of independence, leading Filipino leaders to declare war. The war led to the dissolution of the First Philippine Republic and the loss of around 20,000 Filipino combatants and 200,000 Filipino civilians due to combat, hunger, or disease. | South Asia |
| Philippine Revolution | | 19th | 24 August 1896 | 12 June 1898 | The Philippine Revolution was a revolution and civil war fought between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish Colonial East Indies authorities, under the rule of the Spanish Empire. It was a rebellion against the brutal Spanish colonial rule that had spanned over three centuries and escalated when the USA joined the war against Spain. The Spanish colonial government was ultimately driven out and the Philippines declared independence in 1898. However, this was not recognised, and the USA purchased and colonised the Philippines instead, leading to the Philippine-American War. | South Asia |
| Philippines Campaign (1944-1945) | Liberation of the Philippines | 20th | 20 October 1944 | 15 August 1945 | The Philippines Campaign, also known as the Liberation of the Philippines and part of the Battle of the Philippines, was a joint Allied attack involving the United States of America, the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Australia and Mexico against the Japanese Empire. It aimed to expel the Japanese forces occupying the Philippines during World War II through an amphibious, naval and air invasion. The Allied victory followed the atomic bombs on mainland Japan in 1945 and this ensured the liberation of the Philippines from Japan. The death toll of the campaign is recorded as 420,000 dead. | South Asia |
| Philippines Campaign (1941-1942) | Fall of the Philippines | 20th | 8 December 1941 | 8 May 1942 | The Philippines Campaign, also known as the Fall of the Philippines and part of the Battle of the Philippines, began when Japanese Imperial forces invaded the Philippines as part of the Pacific Theatre of WWII. The Philippine Armies joined with the United States to defend the islands but were badly defeated. About 23,000 American soldiers and 100,000 Filipino soldiers were killed or captured, and Japan began their occupation of the Philippines. This conquest of the Philippines by Japan is often considered one of the United States’ worst military defeats. | South Asia |
| Moro Rebellion | | 19th, 20th | 4 February 1899 | 15 June 1913 | The Moro Rebellion was an armed conflict between the Moro people (derived from the Spanish term for Moor to describe the Muslim people of the Southern Philippines) and the United States military. The rebellion was sparked when the USA changed the terms of the agreement they had with the Moro, after their interests changed due to winning the Philippine-American War in the north of the country. The USA created the Moro Province in 1902 to maintain it as a protectorate, but Moro revolts continued until 1913 and Moro separatist movements continued until its independence in 1946. | South Asia |
| Kiram-Bates Treaty | Bates Treaty | 19th, 20th | 20 August 1899 | 2 March 1904 | The Kiram-Bates Treaty, or the Bates Treaty, was an agreement signed by the United States and the Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines. It was a strategic move by the USA, who wanted to prevent the southern Sultanate from joining in the Philippine-American War, so they could focus their limited forces on the north. It was also a means to stem the Moro resistance to American colonisation. It was officially an agreement, rather than a treaty, which meant it had lesser status under international law, making it easier for the Americans to breach it to suit their interests later in 1904. | South Asia |
| Spanish Treaty of Peace of 1878 | | 19th | 22 July 1878 | | The Spanish Treaty of Peace 1878, also known as the Protocol between Spain and Sulu Confirming the Bases of Peace and Capitulation, was the last treaty signed between Spain and the Sultan of Sulu during the Imperial Spanish occupation of Jolo in the Philippines. The treaty positioned Sulu as a protectorate rather than a dependency and established security, peace and stability for Spain in the whole Archipelago. However, flaws in the translation had implications for the subsequent 1898 cession of the Philippines to the USA, as the Spanish version states Spain had sovereignty over Sulu. | South Asia |
| Spanish–Moro Conflict | | 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th | 1565 | 1898 | The Spanish-Moro Conflict (derived from the Spanish term for Moor to describe the Muslim people of the Southern Philippines) was a series of conflicts in the Philippines spanning more than three centuries. The conflicts began when the Spanish Empire conquered the Philippines in the 16th century, aiming to establish geographic dominance over the region and to convert the population to Catholicism. The resistance of the Moro people did not slow down, and the conflicts continued until the Spanish-American War, when American occupation took over, but Moro resistance continued. | South Asia |
| Carpenter Agreement | Kiram-Carpenter Agreement | 20th | 22 March 1915 | | The Carpenter Agreement, which is sometimes called the Kiram-Carpenter Agreement, was signed by the United States and the Sultan of Sulu, of the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines. It nulled the previous Kiram-Bates Agreement signed in 1899 and relinquished the right to sovereignty, tax collection and adjudication laws for the Sultan and his heirs. In exchange, it granted the Sultan a monetary allowance, some land and to be recognised as the religious leader and head of the Mohammedan Church in Sulu, as well as religious freedom for those of the Mohammedan faith. | South Asia |
| Hukbalahap Rebellion | | 20th | 29 March 1942 | 17 May 1954 | The Hukbalahap Rebellion, also called the Hukbalahap Insurrection, was a rebellion by the Filipino communist guerrilla group Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon, whose name abbreviates to Hukbalahap and means 'The People's Army Against Japan'. The first phase of the 12-year rebellion started during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in 1942, resulting in a Hukbalahap victory. Once Japan was defeated in 1945, the rebels continued to revolt against the reinstated Philippine Government, receiving aid from the USA. After initial success, the rebellion was ultimately put down in 1954. | South Asia |
| Communist Rebellion in the Philippines | New People's Army Rebellion | 20th, 21st | 29 March 1969 | Ongoing | The Communist Rebellion in the Philippines, or the New People's Army Rebellion, is the longest-running insurgency in Asia, waged between the government of the Philippines and the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines, called the New People's Army (NPA). The NPA have been devoted to overthrowing the government for decades, seeking to expel USA influence from the Philippines and to create a new state led by the working class. Their guerrilla approach has outlasted many Philippine presidents. The war has caused the death of over 40,000 civilians, rebels and soldiers. | South Asia |
| Moro Conflict | State-Moro Conflict | 20th, 21st | 18 March 1968 | 22 February 2019 | The Moro Conflict, or State-Moro Conflict, involved multiple armed groups based around the Mindanao region of the Philippines waging war against the Philippine government. The insurgency persisted for decades and was rooted in a long history of resistance by the Bangsamoro people against foreign subjugation and rule, including the annexation of the Philippines in 1898 by the USA. The conflict was triggered by the Jabidah massacre on 18 March 1968 and led to over 120,000 deaths since then. A war-to-peace transition took place from 2019. | South Asia |
| Treaty of Simulambuco | | 19th | 1885 | | The Treaty of Simulambuco was a peace treaty signed by the Portuguese Empire and the leaders of the N’Goyo Kingdom in south Cabinda (covering parts of present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of Angola). Under the terms of this treaty, the Ngoyo became a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown. The treaty has become a point of contention between Cabinda and Angola in Cabinda’s separatist struggle, as it marked Cabinda as a separate entity to Angola. | Africa |
| Caprivi Conflict | Caprivi Rebellion | 20th | 1994 | 1999 | The Caprivi Conflict, also known as the Caprivi Rebellion, was a conflict between the Caprivi Liberation Army and the Namibian Government. The Caprivi Liberation Army was formed by the Lozi, the majority population of the Caprivi Strip, who do not identify with the Namibian population. In August 1999, the separatist Caprivi Liberation Army attacked a military base and a police station. The Namibian government responded with violence and repression, forcing many of the rebels to seek refuge in Botswana. | Africa |
| Bondelswarts Rebellion | Bondelswarts Affair | 20th | May 1922 | June 1922 | The Bondelswarts Rebellion, also known as the Bondelswarts Affair, was a conflict between the indigenous Bondelswarts and the German colonial administration in what is now Southern Namibia. The Bondelswarts had various reasons to resent the German colonial administration and were experiencing particular hardship during a drought from 1918-1922. Tensions rose even further due to German legislation, including a tax on dogs. Following their uprising, the Bondelswarts were repressed and bombed into submission by the Germans, resulting in their surrender. | Africa |
| Ovambo Uprising | | 20th | 18 December 1914 | 06 February 1917 | The Ovambo Uprising was a revolt led by Mandume ya Ndemufayo, King of the Oukwanyama (present-day Angola and Namibia),against Portuguese colonial rule. In 1915, the year of a terrible famine, a Portuguese army attempted to colonise Oukwanyama during the Battle of Omongwa. This battle lasted three days after which Mandume retreated to German Southwest Africa from where he launched various attacks on the Portuguese. He was eventually killed in 1917, which ended this period of Ovambo resistance. | Africa |
| Rehoboth Uprising | | 20th | 1924 | 1925 | The Rehoboth Uprising was a conflict between the Rehoboth Baster community and the South African Administration in Southwest Africa, a former German colony. The Rehoboth Baster community was made up of the children of white colonists and indigenous women. On 10 December 1924, the South African Administration in Southwest Africa suspended the powers of the Council of Basters and transferred them to the white magistrate. This led to the revolt of the Basters who were however quickly rounded up by the administration with the help of airplanes. The revolt was quashed with no loss of life. | Africa |
| Treaty of Protection and Friendship | | 19th | 15 September 1885 | | The Treaty of Protection and Friendship was signed by representatives of the Basters of Rehoboth and the German Empire in 1885. This treaty aimed at protecting the Rehoboth Basters, recognising their rights and freedom, and granting them a remarkable amount of autonomy for the time. In return, the Rehoboth Basters would aid the German colonists in crushing revolts from the Hereros and the Namas, two ethnic groups inhabiting parts of Southern Africa. | Africa |
| Fashoda Incident | Fashoda Crisis | 19th | 10 July 1898 | 13 October 1898 | The Fashoda Incident, also known as the Fashoda Crisis, was a conflict between the French and the British in East Africa. The two forces met in Fashoda in South Sudan on the Upper Nile and both insisted on their respective rights to the territory, and that of Egypt. The contact in Fashoda was peaceful as both sides awaited word from their commanders in Europe. In Europe tensions were high and there was fear of a war breaking out. Due to the strength of the British naval forces, the French finally withdrew after six months of hostility. | Africa |
| Treaty on Walvis Bay | | 20th | 28 February 1994 | | The Treaty on Walvis Bay was an agreement signed by representatives of the Republic of South Africa and the Republic of Namibia which allowed for the reintegration of Walvis Bay into the Republic of Namibia after it became independent in 1990. The former British colony of Walvis Bay, which had been subsumed into Southwest Africa, had held strategic significance for the Republic of South Africa during the South African border war of 1966-1989. | Africa |
| Ethiopian Civil War | | 20th | 12 September 1974 | 28 May 1991 | The Ethiopian Civil War was a conflict that had its foundations in a dispute over policy toward Eritrea and was fought between the Ethiopian military junta known as the Derg, who had just ousted Haile Selassie in a coup, and Ethiopian-Eritrean anti-government rebels. After 13 years of rule by the Derg, in 1987 the Derg dissolved itself establishing the Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. However, in 1991, the socialist government was overthrown by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF),marking the end of socialist rule in Ethiopia. | Africa |
| Ethiopian–Adal War | Futuḥ al-Ḥabash | 16th | 9 March 1529 | 21 February 1543 | The Ethiopian-Adal War, also known as Futuḥ al-Ḥabash (Arabic: conquest of Abyssinia),was a conflict fought between the Adal Sultanate, a medieval Sunni Muslim Empire, and the Christian Ethiopian Empire. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, a military leader of the Adal Sultanate, was victorious over multiple Ethiopian emperors and Christian Abyssinia, present-day Ethiopia, was nearly completely conquered. The tides turned when the Abyssinians received aid from the Portuguese Empire, which eventually led to a return to the status quo ante bellum. | Africa |
| Eritrean–Ethiopian War | Badme War | 20th, 21st | 06 May 1998 | 18 June 2000 | The Eritrean–Ethiopian War, also known as the Badme War, was a conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia that centered around a border dispute and was further aggravated by matters of trade and currency. A clash between Ethiopian and Eritrean armies on the border started the war. In just two years, more than 140,000 soldiers had been killed and 750,000 Eritreans displaced. The war was halted by an agreement which established a security zone patrolled by the United Nations and a boundary commission. This commission awarded Badme, formerly part of Ethiopia, to Eritrea. | Africa |
| Algiers Agreement (2000) | | 21st | 12 December 2000 | | The Algiers Agreement (2000) was a peace treaty that sought to end the Eritrean-Ethiopian War and was signed in Algiers by representatives of Eritrea and Ethiopia. The treaty set out a process of arbitration for resolving the conflict between the two countries. It also established a security zone patrolled by the United Nations as well as a boundary commission which drew out an official marked boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia. The governments of Eritrea and Ethiopia also reaffirmed the Agreement on Cessation of Hostilities which had been signed earlier that year. | Africa |
| Eritrean War of Independence | | 20th | 01 September 1961 | 24 May 1991 | The Eritrean War of Independence was a conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Following Italian and then, briefly, British control over Eritrea, Ethiopia and its Emperor Haile Selassie demanded that Eritrea become part of Ethiopia. The British agreed with this under the condition that Eritrea would have autonomy. What followed was many years of violence, Eritrean Resistance and Ethiopian repression eventually culminating in Eritrean independence in 1991. | Africa |
| Ogaden War | Ethio-Somali War | 20th | 13 July 1977 | 23 March 1978 | The Ogaden War, also known as the Ethio-Somali War, was a conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia. The Ogaden had been subsumed by Ethiopia in the 19th century despite being mainly populated by nomadic Somali peoples. Ethiopian authorities mostly based their claims to the Ogaden upon a 1897 treaty with the British. After the Ethiopian revolution in 1974, claims to Ogaden were reopened by the Somalians, backed by Cuba and the Soviet Union. However, the Soviets and Cubans changed sides leading to a Somalian defeat. | Africa |
| Tigray War | | 21st | 3 November 2020 | 03 November 2022 | The Tigray War was a conflict in Northern Ethiopia, in the Tigray region, that was fought between the Ethiopian federal government and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF). Eritrean soldiers were also involved in the conflict. The war started in 2020 when a military base was attacked by the TPLF leading to a counterattack ordered by the Ethiopian prime minister. It has been speculated that 600,000 people have died in this war and many lost their homes and had to flee. This war has been characterised as one of the most violent of recent years. | Africa |
| Ethiopia-Tigray Agreement | | 21st | 2 November 2022 | | The Ethiopia-Tigray Permanent Cessation of Hostilities Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Pretoria by Ethiopia and the Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in order to peacefully resolve The Tigray War. The agreement was signed after the loss of many thousands of lives and population displacement. It followed outbursts of violence in August of 2022, leading to a slow and rocky start to the peace talks. The treaty is part of the 'Silencing the Guns in Africa' agenda of the African Union. | Africa |
| Anglo-French Convention of 1898 | Niger Convention | 19th | 14 June 1898 | | The Anglo-French Convention of 1898, also known as the Niger Convention, was an agreement signed by France and Britain that drew out borders between disputed areas of northern Nigeria. The agreement was drawn up and signed after the Fashoda Incident and could have prevented a war ensuing in Europe between the two colonial powers. | Africa |
| Bizerte Crisis | | 20th | 19 July 1961 | 23 July 1961 | The Bizerte Crisis was a conflict in Tunisia in 1961 resulting from Tunisia imposing a blockade on a French naval base in Bizerte with the hope of forcing its evacuation. This was unsuccessful as French soldiers broke the blockade and occupied Bizerte. France and Tunisia had signed an independence protocol in 1956 in which France conceded to Tunisia the principles of political autonomy. France had evacuated Tunisia in 1958 but their troops remained in Bizerte and in the southern territories which had been annexed in 1955. | Africa |
| Eighth Crusade | Tunis Crusade | 13th | 1270 | | The Eighth Crusade, also known as the Tunis Crusade, was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and the Hafsid Kingdom - covering parts of present-day Tunisia, Libya, and Algeria. Charles, the brother of Louis IX, had convinced Louis that the Emir of Tunis was ready for conversion to Christianity. His armada set off in the summer of 1270 and arrived on 18 July off Carthage. Due to poor drinking water, disease quickly spread throughout the crusader' army, killing Louis. Charles arrived in August and preserved the expedition, until the Emir paid him an indemnity. | Africa |
| Treaty of Tunis | | 13th | October 1270 | | The Treaty of Tunis was a peace treaty signed at the end of the Eighth Crusade. It set out agreements between the Kingdom of France and the Hafsid Kingdom. It included an indemnity payment to Charles of Anjou of 210,000 gold ounces which would guarantee the withdrawal of Charles' army. It was also agreed that, among other things, Christian traders in Hafsid territory would be safeguarded, and Muslim travellers would be under God’s protection in the lands of Christian Kings. | Africa |
| Tunisian–Algerian war of 1694 | | 17th | 24 June 1694 | Date Contested | The Tunisian–Algerian War of 1694 was a conflict between the Deylik of Algiers and the Regency of Tunis. In the summer of 1694, the Algerian army invaded Tunis and defeated Muhammad Bey. The resulting siege lasted three months and ended with the destruction of the capital. Muhammad ben Cheker, who had led the Algerian army, reigned over Tunis for six months after which the people of Tunis revolted - partly due to the high taxes imposed by the new leader - and Mohammed Bey was crowned king again in 1695. | Africa |
| Batna Uprising | | 20th | 1916 | 1917 | The Batna Uprising was an insurgency in Algeria against the French colonial administration. It has been debated as to whether the rebellion came about due to forced conscription or whether it was part of the 130 year long struggle of Algerians for independence. The rebellion resulted in dramatic attacks in November 1916 and the devastation of a number of farms belonging to Europeans. The rebels eventually decided to form a nominal Algerian republic. This was repressed by the French and 805 Algerians were arrested. | Africa |
| Tunisian-Venetian War | Venetian Bombardments of the Beylik of Tunis | 18th | June 1784 | 1792 | The Tunisian-Venetian War, also known as the Venetian Bombardments of the Beylik of Tunis, was a conflict between the Beylik of Tunis and the Republic of Venice. The war started after a Venetian ship, loaded with cargoes from Tunis, was destroyed and compensation claims from Tunis were dismissed. The Venetian navy under Angelo Emo bombed the capital and various cities of the Beylik of Tunis. Despite the resulting damage, this did not bring the Tunisian government to the negotiating table. Only years later, in 1792, a peace agreement was reached. | Africa |
| Mejba Revolt | | 19th | 1864 | 1865 | The Mejba Revolt was an insurrection against Muhammad III as-Sadiq, also known as Sadok Bey, who was the leader of the Beylik of Tunis. The reason for this rebellion was the doubling of an unpopular tax commonly known as the mejba. Due to the nature of the revolt, which included uprisings all over the country, Britain and France came close to intervening. The insurrection was brutally suppressed with the help of foreign creditors. | Africa |
| Mediterranean Campaign of 1798 | | 18th | June 1798 | December 1798 | The Mediterranean Campaign of 1798 was a conflict in Egypt between the French Republic and the British Empire. The French, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, sought to invade Egypt as a first step in capturing India from the British. Also, they sought to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment. Bonaparte successfully captured Alexandria at the Battle of Alexandria on 2 July 1798. What followed were the Battle of the Pyramids and the ultimate French defeat at the Battle of the Nile which shifted the balance of power in the Mediterranean. | Africa |
| Revolt of Cairo | | 18th | 21 October 1798 | 22 October 1798 | The Revolt of Cairo was an uprising of the citizens of Cairo against the occupation of the city by the French who were led by Napoleon Bonaparte. When Napoleon taxed buildings and tried to remove graves in order to build his headquarters, the people of Cairo began to revolt in large numbers. Napoleon sent one of his generals into the streets to calm the insurgency, but the people killed him and captured the gates. The French quashed the uprising by firing cannons and killing a large number of Cairo citizens. | Africa |
| Sinai Insurgency | | 21st | 05 February 2011 | 25 January 2023 | The Sinai Insurgency was a conflict in the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. It began in 2011 when Islamist militants undertook attacks on Egyptian security forces in the context of the Egyptian Crisis. In 2015, these militants declared allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL or ISIS) and launched the largest attacks since the beginning of the conflict. The violence continues despite the Egyptian president announcing the end of terrorism in the area on 25 January 2023. | Africa |
| Anglophone Crisis | Cameroonian Civil War | 20th, 21st | 09 September 2017 | Ongoing | The Anglophone Crisis, also known as the Cameroonian Civil War, is an ongoing conflict in Cameroon between government forces and separatist groups seeking independence for the country’s Anglophone regions. The conflict resulted from peaceful protests in 2016-2017 by lawyers and teachers in the country’s two Anglophone regions against marginalisation by the Francophone central government. The violent crackdown of these protests led to an armed insurgence. Currently, the death toll of this conflict is at least 6,000 and 765,000 people have been displaced from their homes. | Africa |
| Central African Republic Civil War | | 21st | 10 December 2012 | Ongoing | The Central African Civil War is an ongoing insurgency in the Central African Republic (CAR) involving the Seleka coalition, the government, and Anti-balaka militias. Having first seized the capital, the Seleka fighters, mainly consisting of Muslims, staged a coup in March 2013, ousting President Bozizé. In response to the Seleka’s violence, the Christian Anti-balaka fighters carried out recriminations. There is also fighting between ex-Seleka factions. Over one million CAR citizens have been displaced and approximately 500,000 have been driven into neighbouring countries. | Africa |
| Boko Haram Insurgency | | 21st | 26 July 2009 | Ongoing | The Boko Haram Insurgency is a conflict between Boko Haram, an Islamic sectarian movement in Nigeria, and the Nigerian government since 2009. Boko Haram gained notoriety in July 2009 when they launched attacks on police posts and other government installations. The army was brought in to control the rebels, leaving more than 700 members dead and destroying the mosque that doubled as their headquarters. The group revived their attacks in 2010 and 2011 and in 2013 it became evident that Boko Haram had taken over rural government in north-eastern states. The threat of attack continues. | Africa |
| Lord's Resistance Army Insurgency | | 20th | 1987 | Ongoing | The Lord’s Resistance Army Insurgency is an ongoing conflict primarily between the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and the Ugandan government. It has spilled over to involve the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, and South Sudan. The LRA is a Christian militia that evokes Acholi nationalism on occasion. Following the overthrowing of Tito Okello, an ethnic Acholi, the LRA adopted guerrilla warfare tactics against the Ugandan government. The LRA has become known for its abduction of children and reliance on child soldiers. The LRA still operates at a low level. | Africa |
| Central African Republic Bush War | | 21st | 23 November 2004 | Date Contested | The Central African Republic Bush War was a civil conflict in the Central African Republic (CAR) between the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR),a coalition of rebel groups, and government forces. The conflict began shortly after the 2003 coup d’état and Bozize’s ascension to the presidency. Throughout 2004 and 2005 armed groups robbed, beat and raped civilians. The UFDR seized four towns in northern CAR in 2006. The end of the conflict is disputed, but a peace treaty was signed in 2008 in Gabon by the government and various rebel groups. | Africa |
| Libreville Global Peace Agreement | | 21st | 21 June 2008 | | The Libreville Global Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Libreville, Gabon, by the Central African Republic and the UFDR, APRD, and FDPC movements in order to end the Central African Republic Bush War. The Central African Republic Civil War was partly sparked by claims of the insurgent group Seleka that the government of Bozize was not acting in accordance with this treaty. | Africa |
| Mozambican Civil War | | 20th | 30 May 1977 | 4 October 1992 | The Mozambican Civil War was a conflict occurring in Mozambique which lasted for 15 years. Although the conflict is generally viewed as a civil war, because the Soviet Union backed the Mozambican government whilst the United States funded the rebels, it could also be defined as a proxy war. Both government forces and rebels deployed violent tactics and the war was only brought to an end in 1992 because of outside factors such as the fall of the Soviet Union. A peace treaty was signed in Italy which allowed UN peacekeepers to enter Mozambique. The first elections were held in 1994. | Africa |
| Satiru Uprising | Mahdist Revolt | 20th | 1906 | 1906 | The Satiru Uprising, also known as the Mahdist Revolt, was an insurgency that occurred in British northern Nigeria. In 1904, the Satiru village chief had declared himself The Mahdi and his son, Isa, the prophet. The chief was arrested and died in prison, but his son succeeded him as chief. Isa attacked a local village that refused to follow him and declared a jihad against the British in 1906. A first battle ensued in which the British lost. However, a second battle wiped out 2,000 Satiru inhabitants and the town was destroyed, never to be rebuilt again. | Africa |
| M23 Rebellion | | 21st | 04 April 2012 | 07 November 2013 | The M23 Rebellion was a conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 2012 and 2013 after the official end of the Second Congo War. Fighting broke out between the March 23 Movement, formed largely of ethnic Tutsi, and government forces in July 2012. M23 was an offshoot from the CNDP who had fought the government in DRC between 2006 and 2009. They were considered Rwandophones and claimed that Tutsi were discriminated against. The M23 Rebellion lasted 20 months until the M23 announced it would disarm and pursue political talks after being driven out of their last military bases. | Africa |
| Rwenzururu Uprising | | 20th | 1962 | 1982 | The Rwenzururu Uprising was a conflict in Uganda between the minority Bakonjo and Baamba ethnic groups and the Batooro who dominated the Kingdom of Tooro, a subnational kingdom in southwest Uganda. The Rwenzururu movement demanded a separate district for these two ethnic groups and, when refused by the Ugandan government, a wing of the movement decided to set up its own mini-state on the Congo border. The movement disbanded in 1982 following peaceful negotiations. | Africa |
| First Sudanese Civil War | Anyanya Rebellion | 20th | 18 August 1955 | 27 March 1972 | The First Sudanese Civil War, also known as the Anyanya Rebellion, was a conflict between the northern and southern parts of Sudan after gaining independence from British colonial rule in 1956. The British administration had administered the north and south of Sudan separately but, due to pressure from Northern elites who took power, the two areas were merged. Joseph Lagu created the insurgent force, the Anyanya, by consolidating rebel groups. The conflict continued until 1972 when the Addis Ababa Agreement was signed. | Africa |
| Addis Ababa Agreement | Addis Ababa Accord | 20th | 27 February 1972 | | The Addis Ababa Agreement, also known as the Addis Ababa Accord, was a peace treaty that ended the First Sudanese Civil War. It was signed on 27 February 1972 after only 12 days of deliberations and granted Southern Sudan semi-autonomy through a regional government. There were also constitutional provisions for religious and cultural protection that were applied. Following the accord, Sudan experienced more than a decade of peace but eventually collapsed because of its steady undermining by the regime of Jaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry. | Africa |
| 1966 Mengo Crisis | Buganda Crisis | 20th | 1966 | 1966 | The 1966 Mengo Crisis, also known as the Buganda Crisis, was a conflict between the Republic of Uganda and the Kingdom of Buganda, a Bantu kingdom within Uganda. Ugandan government soldiers stormed the palace at Mengo in Buganda and burnt ancient treasures and royal regalia. They also killed thousands and committed numerous other atrocities. The crisis unfolded partly because of Obote, the Prime Minister of Uganda, and his plan to erode the power of the Buganda Kingdom which was looking to gain a favoured status in Uganda. | Africa |
| 1972 Invasion of Uganda | | 20th | September 1972 | October 1972 | The 1972 Invasion of Uganda was an attempt to overthrow Idi Amin, President of Uganda, by insurgents who were supported by Tanzania. The insurgents were led by the former Ugandan President Obote and consisted of around 1,500 armed men. After some initial triumphs, such as the occupation of Kyotera, Kakuto and Kalisizo, the insurgents were defeated by Idi Amin’s army. The Ugandan military accused Britain of involvement in the insurgency along with Tanzania and detained a number of British citizens in Uganda at the time. | Africa |
| Arube Uprising | Arube Coup | 20th | 23 March 1974 | 24 March 1974 | The Arube Uprising, also known as the Arube Coup, was a conflict between Brigadier Charles Arube and President Idi Amin of Uganda. Arube attempted a coup d’etat with the help of Lugbara fighters. Arube had been training in the Soviet Union and returned to find out that he had been replaced as army chief of staff. As a Christian, he was already aggrieved by the massacres of Christians that were taking place in Uganda at the time. The coup failed and it was rumoured that Arube shot himself. Many Lugbara soldiers were murdered as a result of the conflict. | Africa |
| Entebbe Raid | Operation Thunderbolt | 20th | 3 July 1976 | 4 July 1976 | The Entebbe Raid, also known as Operation Thunderbolt, involved a counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission at Entebbe Airport in Uganda. An airplane was hijacked by members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations and the German Revolutionary Cells. The Ugandan government supported the hijackers. Having landed in Entebbe, the hijackers held 106 people hostage and demanded the release of 53 militants. The action failed and Israeli forces rescued the hostages. All hijackers were killed and a large part of Uganda's air force was destroyed. | Africa |
| Ugandan Bush War | Luwero War | 20th | 6 October 1980 | March 1986 | The Ugandan Bush War, also known as the Luwero War, was a conflict in the Republic of Uganda which led to Yoweri Museveni taking power in 1986. After President Idi Amin was overthrown during the Kagera War, there was a power vacuum in Uganda. The former President Milton Obote took power in 1981 following an election. Yoweri Museveni waged a guerrilla war in the bush intending to overthrow Obote. It has been estimated that between 100,000 and 500,000 deaths occurred because of the war and that most of these were a result of Obote’s government’s violence. | Africa |
| Second Sudanese Civil War | | 20th, 21st | 5 June 1983 | 9 January 2005 | The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict between the Sudanese central government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The conflict led to the creation of South Sudan as a separate nation in 2011. The imposition of Sharia Law by President Nimeiry in 1983 meant that the largely Christian South Sudanese population would be punished. As a response, the SPLA was formed. Though Nimeiry was ousted in a military coup in 1985, Sharia Law was not suspended, and the fighting continued until 2005. Approximately two million people are believed to have lost their lives in the conflict. | Africa |
| Comprehensive Peace Agreement | Naivasha Agreement | 21st | 9 January 2005 | | The Comprehensive Peace Agreement, also known as the Naivasha Agreement, was a peace treaty signed by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) and the Government of Sudan which ended the Second Sudanese Civil War, one of the longest and bloodiest on the African continent. The agreement set a timetable for a Southern Sudanese independence referendum. The SPLM withdrew from the government in October 2007, claiming that the central government had violated the terms of the peace treaty but, after an agreement in December, they rejoined. | Africa |
| Kasese Clashes | Kasese Massacre | 21st | 26 November 2016 | 27 November 2016 | The Kasese Clashes, also known as the Kasese Massacre, was a conflict in the capital of the subnational Kingdom of Rwenzururu in the Republic of Uganda in 2016. It took place over the course of a weekend in November. Rwenzururu guards allegedly attacked Ugandan police, killing 14 officers. The Ugandan police retaliated by raiding the regional king’s palace killing 103 people and arresting many more. Historically, the Rwenzururu Kingdom has been in a long-running separatist struggle with the state of Uganda. | Africa |
| Mount Elgon Insurgency | | 21st | 2005 | March 2008 | The Mount Elgon Insurgency was a conflict in Western Kenya between the Sabaot Land Defence Force (SLDF) and the Kenyan government. The roots of the conflict go back to the British colonial administration of Kenya which had displaced many Sabaots and given their land to new settlers. The SLDF engaged in human rights abuses as did the government when they launched Operation Okoa Maisha to crack down on the insurgency in March 2008. | Africa |
| Giriama Uprising | Kondo Ya Chembe | 20th | 1913 | 1914 | The Giriama Uprising, also known as Kondo Ya Chembe, was a conflict in Kenya between the Giriama and the British colonial administration. The Giriama had been largely left alone until 1913 when they were asked to provide labour for a water project for the city of Mombasa and refused. The British decided to take a census of the Giriama and collect taxes. By June, Makatilili, a female diviner, and Wanje, an elder, had crystalised their resistance plan. There was a riot in August 1913 which was broken up by police. The following year, the uprising started again but was easily quashed. | Africa |
| Revolt of the Women | | 20th | 1947 | 1948 | The Revolt of the Women was a conflict in the Murang’a district in Kenya in which a group of Kikuyu women resisted forced labour on communal conservation schemes. In April 1948, in the context of issues around soil erosion, female workers revolted against the British administration’s enforcement of labour and terracing. These women were arrested and given fines for delinquency. | Africa |
| Kolloa Affray | | 20th | 1950 | | The Kolloa Affray was a conflict in Kenya between the Pokot in the Baringo District and the British colonial administration. Lukas Pkech had been spreading the ideas of Dini ya Msambwa, a movement started by Elijah Masinde who claimed that he was the prophet of traditional religion and who preached the removal of all European presence. Pkech was arrested in 1949 but escaped and returned to Baringo. The conflict occurred when Pkech, along with 300 spear-carrying followers, met a group of armed police. Pkech was killed, along with 28 of his followers, and 4 policemen also died. | Africa |
| Harry Thuku Riot | Harry Thuku Disturbances | 20th | 1922 | | The Harry Thuku Riot, also known as Harry Thuku Disturbances, was a conflict between the British colonial administration and Harry Thuku’s supporters in Kenya. Harry Thuku was a founder of the East African Association (EAA) and an advocate for his fellow Kenyans against the racism of the British, especially the forced labour of women. Thuku was arrested in March 1922 and in response, the EAA called a general strike. Large demonstrations appeared outside the prison. The police opened fire and 21 of Thuku’s supporters were killed. | Africa |
| Anlu Uprising | Kom Women's Rebellion | 20th | May 1958 | January 1961 | The Anlu Uprising, also known as the Kom Women's Rebellion, was a conflict between the women of the former Kom Kingdom, present-day North-West Cameroon, and the British colonial administration. The conflict started because of dissatisfaction with the implementation of contour farming and the selling of lands to Nigerian Ibos. Anlu, the traditional practice of women gathering together, turned political when it demanded the shutting of schools, used roadblocks and defied both traditional and colonial authorities during this three-year uprising. | Africa |
| Casamance Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1982 | Ongoing | The Casamance Conflict is an ongoing war between separatists in the Casamance region of Senegal and the Senegalese government. The Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) is fighting for the independence of the region of Casamance which is ethnically and religiously distinct from the rest of Senegal. The population of Casamance mostly consists of Christians or animists as opposed to the majority Muslim Senegalese. Currently the MFDC benefits from the illegal smuggling of rosewood trees to China across the Gambian border. | Africa |
| Third Free State Basotho War | | 19th | July 1867 | 12 March 1868 | The Third Free State Basotho War was the last of a series of wars between the Basotho Kingdom, led by King Moshoeshoe I, and white settlers in what is known as the Free State, a province of South Africa. Boer forces invaded almost the totality of Moshoeshoe’s land except for the fortress of Thaba Bosiu. Due to his losses, Moshoeshoe asked for British assistance and on 12 March 1868 the British declared the Basotho Kingdom a British protectorate. The Orange Free State was forced to surrender. | Africa |
| Morosi's Rebellion | Siege of Moorosi's Mountain | 19th | 1879 | 1879 | Morosi’s Rebellion, also known as the Siege of Moorosi's Mountain, was a conflict between the Cape colonial government and The BaPhuthi clan in present-day South Africa. Morosi was the chief of the BaPuthi clan in what is now southern Lesotho and had a reputation as a cattle thief. The Cape colonial government failed at an attempt to arrest Morosi’s son Doda but decided to return and try again. Morosi constructed walls at the base of a mountain and managed to keep the settlers at bay until they were bombarded with mortar. He was eventually arrested and approximately 70 rebels died. | Africa |
| Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995) | Second or Third Tuareg Rebellion | 20th | 1990 | 1995 | The Tuareg Rebellion (1990-1995),also known as the Second or Third Tuareg Rebellion, was an uprising of the Tuareg people against the governments of Niger and Mali motivated by continuous marginalisation. Following severe droughts between 1968 and 1985, large numbers of Tuareg nomads emigrated from Niger and Mali to Algeria and Libya, where they were exposed to insurgent ideas. However, many returned due to promises of help from the governments of Niger and Mali. The failure to fulfil these promises as well as the continued disempowerment of the Tuareg people, led to the insurgency. | Africa |
| Republic Niger Government and the ORA Agreement | | 20th | 15 April 1995 | | Republic Niger Government and the ORA Agreement was a comprehensive peace agreement intended to end the Tuareg Rebellion which had been ongoing since 1990. This included the creation of a committee who were tasked with the implementation of the accord. However, negotiations continued until a ceasefire accord was signed two years later. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Accords (1994) | | 20th | October 1994 | | The Ouagadougou Accords was a peace treaty signed by the Republic Niger Government and the Armed Resistance Organisation (ORA) intended to end the Tuareg Rebellion which had been ongoing since 1990. The Agreement Between the Republic Niger Government and the ORA was drawn up and signed the following year to reinforce the content of the Ouagadougou Accords. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Accords (2013) | | 20th | 18 June 2013 | | The Ouagadougou Accords (2013) was a peace treaty signed by the Government of the Republic of Mali and rebel groups, MNLA and HCUA, with the intention of ending the Tuareg insurgency. The agreement permitted the phased deployment of troops from the Malian government in the Kidal province which was the last rebel stronghold in Mali. It aimed to aid the disarmament of Tuareg rebels. The agreement was hailed by the international community as a step towards peace and democracy, but many Tuaregs accuse the Malian forces of ethnically motivated abuses. | Africa |
| Tamanrasset Agreement | | 20th | 6 January 1991 | | The Tamanrasset Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the government of Mali and rebel groups, MPA and FIAA, in order to end the Tuareg Rebellion. The agreement failed in its objective as the rebellion waged for another four years and various other treaties were signed. Similarly to the National Pact, the agreement committed the Malian state to decentralisation, the recognition of the north’s special status, the promotion of economic development in the north and the integration of some rebel combatants into the forces and administration. | Africa |
| National Pact | | 20th | 11 April 1992 | | The National Pact was a peace treaty signed by the government of Mali and the rebel group MFUA in order to end the Tuareg Rebellion. The agreement failed in its objective as the rebellion waged for another three years and other treaties were signed. Similarly to the Tamanrasset Agreement, the pact committed the Malian state to decentralisation, the recognition of the north’s special status, the promotion of economic development in the north and the integration of some rebel combatants into the forces and administration. | Africa |
| Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006–2009 | | 21st | 2006 | 2009 | The Tuareg Insurgency in Mali, 2006–2009, was an uprising in The Republic of Mali that had many of the same characteristics as the Tuareg Rebellion only a decade before. It comprised two main phases with a period of respite in between. From May until July 2006, the Democratic Alliance for Change (ADC) attacked and then signed a peace treaty with the Malian government within three months. Less than a year later, an offshoot of ADC - called the ATNM - resumed the conflict which ended in losses and the leader of the group leaving the country. | Africa |
| Ten Years' War | War of ’68 | 19th | 10 October 1868 | 10 February 1878 | Ten Years’ War, also known as the War of ’68, was an armed conflict which took place in Cuba between 1868 and 1878. Rising tensions between the Cuban people and the Spanish government resulted in a revolution led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. On 10 October 1868, Cuban independence was proclaimed, thus forming the Republic of Cuba. While the conflict was key in the Cuban fight for independence, it ended in defeat for the Cuban revolutionaries. The independence movement weakened in 1877, and in 1878 the Pact of Zanjón was signed, ending the war. | North America |
| Pact of Zanjón | Treaty of Zanjón | 19th | 10 Feburary 1878 | August 1879 | The Pact of Zanjón, also known as the Treaty of Zanjón, was a peace treaty signed on 10 February 1878 by Cuban revolutionaries and representatives of the Spanish government in the Cuban village of Zanjón. The treaty brought an end to the Ten Years’ War fought in Cuba as part of the independence movement. However, peace was short-lived as the nationalist leader Antonio Maceo and several others refused to accept the Spanish conditions of the agreement. Consequently, a second uprising known as the Little War started in August 1879. | North America |
| Little War | | | 26 August 1879 | 3 December 1880 | The Little War, known in Spanish as La Guerra Chiquita, was a war of independence fought by Cuban revolutionaries led by Calixto Garcia against Spanish colonial forces between 26 August 1879 and 3 December 1880. While the revolutionaries had several successes, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed, and Cuba did not win its independence until 1898. | North America |
| Cuban War of Independence | Necessary War | 19th | 24 February 1895 | 10 December 1898 | The Cuban War of Independence, also known in Cuba as the Necessary War, took place between 24 February 1895 and 10 December 1898. At the beginning of the conflict, Spain sent approximately 100,000 soldiers to terminate the uprising. The conflict was the last of three in the Cuban Independence Movement and resulted in Cuban independence being formally granted in 1902, with the intervention of the United States of America towards the end of the war. The end of both the Cuban War of Independence and the Spanish-American War was reflected in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. | North America |
| Escambray Rebellion | | 20th | 1959 | 1965 | The Escambray Rebellion was an armed conflict which took place in the Escambray Mountains in Cuba between 1959 and 1965. The conflict was between Cuban insurgent groups, who fought alongside Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution, and the Cuban government. The insurgents were a considerably smaller force than the government, resulting in a victory for the government. | North America |
| Cuban Missile Crisis | October Crisis of 1962 | 20th | 16 October 1962 | 29 October 1962 | The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis of 1962, was an armed confrontation between the United States of America and the Soviet Union that took place between 16 to 29 October. The conflict followed the discovery that nuclear missile sites were being built by the Soviet Union in Cuba. The United States enforced naval blockades to prevent further military supplies from being imported to Cuba. Eventually, it was agreed by the leaders of the two countries, John F. Kennedy and Nikita Krushchev, that nuclear warfare would have devastating consequences on a global scale, and the missile sites were dismantled. | North America |
| Operation Mongoose | | 20th | 30 November 1961 | 1962 | Operation Mongoose was a series of covert operatives carried out by United States CIA operatives in Cuba throughout the year 1961. The objective of Operation Mongoose was to destabilise and remove the Communist Castro government. Components of the operation included the publication of Anti-Castro propaganda, the provision of armaments for militant opposition groups, and the establishment of guerrilla bases throughout Cuba. Operation Mongoose failed to achieve its primary goal, and support from the Soviet Union continued in Cuba until the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. | North America |
| Cuban Revolution | | 20th | 26 July 1953 | 1 January 1959 | The Cuban Revolution was an armed effort to overthrow the government of Fulgencio Batista, which started on 26 July 1953. Guerrilla forces opposing Batista’s government were led by Fidel Castro, and on 1 January 1959 Castro’s M-26-7 rebel army successfully overthrew the government. Fidel Castro subsequently ruled Cuba from 1959 to 2008. | North America |
| Tacky’s War | Tacky’s Revolt | 18th | 7 April 1760 | October 1761 | Tacky’s War, also known as Tacky’s Revolt, was a fight for freedom by enslaved people in the British Colony of Jamaica against British colonial forces. The rebellion took place from 7 April 1760 to October 1761 and was led by Akan people which included the tribes of Ashanti, Fanti, Nzema, and Akyem. The uprising was led by a Fanti royal and warlord named Tacky (Takyi) in eastern Jamaica, and by Dahomean war chief Apongo in the western part of the island. Facing an overwhelming number of British forces, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed. | North America |
| First Maroon War | | 18th | 1728 | 1739 | The First Maroon War was an armed conflict between Jamaican Maroons and colonial British forces and took place between 1728 and 1739. The Maroon communities were comprised of enslaved people who ran away to the mountains from Spanish-owned plantations when the British took control of Jamaica. The Maroons, alongside other fugitives, fought against the British after colonial forces tried to quell the increasing Maroon numbers. Ending in 1739, the war resulted in a Maroon victory with the British drafting peace treaties. | North America |
| Second Maroon War | | 18th | 1795 | 1 January 1796 | The Second Maroon War was an armed conflict between Jamaican Maroon people and British colonial forces that took place in 1795 and ended on 1 January 1796. Following rising tensions between the two factions, the war was sparked when two Maroon people were flogged publicly for allegedly having stolen pigs from white plantation owners. Due to the overwhelming number of British forces, the Maroon people eventually surrendered, More than 500 Maroons were subsequently sent to Sierra Leone, a newly established African colony. | North America |
| Morant Bay Rebellion | | 19th | 11 October 1865 | 11 October 1865 | The Morant Bay Rebellion took place on 11 October 1865 in Morant Bay, Jamaica. Slavery was abolished in Jamaica on 1 August 1834, yet injustice and widespread poverty continued to be pervasive throughout Jamaica in the late-1800s. When Black Jamaicans marched, led by Paul Bogle, on the courthouse in early October over land inequality, it fuelled the Morant Bay Rebellion. The rebels were met by local officials and a small militia, resulting in the death of approximately 25 people on both sides. Many of the Jamaican people received severe punishments for the rebellion. | North America |
| Zong Massacre | | 18th | November 1781 | November 1781 | The Zong Massacre was a mass killing of approximately 142 enslaved Africans, which took place in November 1781. The Zong was a British slave ship, which left Ghana with just over 400 enslaved people aboard, almost double what the ship was designed to carry. As the ship came into port in Jamaica, many of the African people were thrown overboard whilst still alive, and they subsequently drowned. The ship owners made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves. When the insurers refused to pay, the resulting court cases found that in some circumstances, the deliberate killing of enslaved people was legal. | North America |
| Baptist War | Christmas Rebellion | 19th | 25 December 1831 | 4 January 1832 | The Baptist War, also known as the Christmas Rebellion, was a rebellion that took place from 25 December 1831 to 4 January 1832. The 11-day rebellion mobilised an estimated 60,000 enslaved people in Jamaica, led by Jamaican Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe, to confront the colonial forces. The rebellion was quickly extinguished by British colonial forces, but skirmishes continued for another two months. By the end of the fighting, over 200 rebels had been killed, and a further 300 enslaved people, including Samuel Sharpe, were executed. | North America |
| Haitian Revolution | | 18th, 19th | 21 August 1791 | 1 January 1804 | The Haitian Revolution was an armed conflict between enslaved Haitian people and both French and British colonial forces which took place from 21 August 1791 to 1 January 1804. The revolution was an armed struggle to overthrow French colonial rule and establish an independent nation. After 12 years of conflict, the Haitian people and their supporters defeated the colonial forces, gaining independence from France. | North America |
| Caco Revolt | Caco Uprising | 20th | 1918 | 1920 | The Caco Revolt, also known as the Caco Uprising, was a series of conflicts between Haitian armed men known as Cacos and United States forces which took place between 1918 and 1920. From 1915 to 1934, American forces occupied Haiti, and the Caco forces resisted forced labour and expropriation of their land. The Caco forces were eventually defeated in 1920, and the end of hostilities was marked by the death of the Caco leader, Benoît Batraville. | North America |
| Dominican War of Independence | | 19th | 27 February 1844 | January 1856 | The Dominican War of Independence was an armed conflict that took place between 27 February 1844 and January 1856 which resulted in Dominican independence. Since 1822, the Caribbean island of Hispaniola had unified the newly independent nation, previously known as the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, in the Republic of Haiti. On 27 February 1844, an armed revolutionary struggle broke out on the eastern side of the island, with the Dominicans defeating Haitian forces. The conflict continued until January 1856, eventually resulting in the Haitian forces retreating and the Dominican Republic gaining its independence. | North America |
| Dominican Civil War | April Revolution | 20th | 24 April 1965 | 3 September 1965 | The Dominican Civil War, also known as the April Revolution, was a conflict between several military factions that began on 24 April 1965 when supporters of the overthrown democratically elected president Juan Bosch ousted the militarily-installed president, Donald Reid Cabral, from office. Fears of communist rebels led to American intervention in late April 1965. Eventually, a ceasefire was declared and the loyalist faction of the Dominican Republic, supported by the United States, was victorious. Elections were held on 1 July 1966 where the conservative Reformist Party candidate, Joaquín Balaguer, became president. | North America |
| La Scierie Massacre | | 21st | 11 February 2004 | 11 February 2004 | The La Scierie Massacre took place on 11 February 2004 in the town of Saint-Marc, Haiti. Whilst protesting against Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Haiti’s first democratically elected president, 27 members of an anti-Aristide organisation were killed, with the illegally armed pro-Aristide organization Balé Wouzé taking action against the anti-Aristide group known as RAMISCOM. Contentions pertain between the two sides as to the number of dead, who instigated the fighting, and the extent and nature of the government’s involvement. | North America |
| Rio Pedras Massacre | | 20th | 24 October 1935 | 24 October 1935 | The Rio Piedras Massacre took place on 24 October 1935 at the University of Puerto Rico. The massacre happened as a result of a confrontation between members of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and the police force in Rio Piedras. As a result of the conflict, four Nationalist party members were killed, and one police officer was injured. | North America |
| Jayuya Uprising | Jayuya Revolt | 20th | 30 October 1950 | | The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt, took place on 30 October 1950 in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The conflict was a Nationalist uprising against the Puerto Rican government, which was supported by the United States of America. The insurrectionists, who opposed US sovereignty over Puerto Rico, were led by Blanca Canales. Armed, they marched into Jayuya where they subsequently took control of the police station. Martial law was declared by the governor of Jayuya, Luis Muñoz Marin. Several military attacks forced the Nationalists to surrender, defeating the uprising. | North America |
| Cerro Maravilla Murders | Cerro Maravilla Massacre | 20th | 25 July 1978 | 25 July 1978 | The Cerro Maravilla Murders, also known as the Cerro Maravilla Massacre, took place on 25 July 1978 on the mountain of Cerro Maravilla in Ponce, Puerto Rico. In an ambush by Puerto Rican police, two pro-independence activists were killed. The incident was initially declared to be an act against terrorism, but the police officers were later found guilty of murder. The victims were Carlos Enrique Soto-Arriví and Arnaldo Darío Rosado-Torres. | North America |
| Treaty Between the British and the Maroons | | 18th | 1739 | 1795 | The Treaty Between the British and the Maroons was signed in 1739 by British governor Edward Trelawny and Captain Cudjoe, the representatives of Great Britain and Jamaican Maroons, respectively. The treaty signalled the end of the First Maroon War, which had resulted in victory for the Maroons. With the treaty, the Maroons gained sovereignty over 1500 acres of land and some degree of political and economic autonomy, in return for providing military support to the British colonies. The treaty was broken in 1795, which resulted in the exiling of the Maroon offenders to Nova Scotia, Canada. | North America |
| War of 1863 | | 19th | 13 February 1863 | 26 October 1863 | The War of 1863 was an armed conflict between Guatemala and El Salvador which took place from 13 February to 26 October 1863. The conflict was due to the growing opposition between Guatemalan President Rafael Carrera and the president of El Salvador, Gerardo Barrios. The war ended with the siege of San Salvador, the capital city of El Salvador, with Barrios fleeing the city. Barrios was overthrown and replaced by Francisco Dueñas, thus ending the war. | North America |
| Guatemalan Civil War | | 20th | 13 November 1960 | 29 December 1996 | The Guatemalan Civil War took place from 13 November 1960 to 29 December 1996 between the Guatemalan government and revolution movement groups under various names throughout the 36 years of conflict. The war began as a revolt against the government and escalated into warfare. It is estimated that up to 200,00 people died in the civil war, and the conflict is infamous for the use of violence and military tactics that violated human rights. Throughout the conflict a number of social reforms were put into place, and the war eventually ended when a peace accord was signed in 1996. | North America |
| Caste War of Yucatán | | 19th | 1847 | 1915 | The Caste War of Yucatán was an armed conflict that took place from 1847 to 1915 in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and British Honduras with Mexico, Yucatan, Guatemala, and British Honduras fighting against the Maya peoples of Yucatán. The Maya rebelled against further migration of Hispanic and white populations to indigenous rural towns. With the aid of the British, after realising the trading potential of the Maya peoples, a Mayan victory was secured in 1883. However, the conflict reignited and in 1915, the Maya peoples were defeated, although skirmishes continued until 1933. | North America |
| Filibuster War | Walker Affair | 19th | 16 June 1855 | 1 May 1857 | The Filibuster War, also known as the Walker Affair, took place between 16 June 1855 and 1 May 1857. It was a conflict between an American mercenary army led by William Walker and a number of Central American armies. William Walker and his army filibustered into Nicaragua, meaning that he led military personnel to invade a foreign territory without authorisation. Intent on defending Central America from Walker and other filibusters, Central American countries formed a coalition which defeated Walker’s army. Walker subsequently surrendered to the US Navy. | North America |
| First Totoposte War | | 19th | 27 June 1890 | 21 August 1890 | The First Totoposte War was the first of three conflicts of the same name. This war took place from 27 June 1890 to 21 August 1890 between Guatemala and El Salvador and began as a result of the President of El Salvador, Francisco Menéndez, being overthrown by Carlos Ezeta. Officials from Menéndez’s government fled to Guatemala where they persuaded Guatemalan President Manuel Barillas to invade El Salvador. The war became a stalemate within weeks and a peace treaty was signed on 21 August 1890. | North America |
| Treaty of Amapala | | 19th | 20 June 1895 | 29 November 1898 | The Treaty of Amapala was signed on 20 June 1895 by representatives from El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The signing of the treaty formed the Greater Republic of Central America, which collectively held diplomatic relations with the United States of America. However, on 29 November 1898, the Greater Republic of Central America was dissolved along with the Treaty of Amapala. | North America |
| Second Totoposte War | | 20th | 1903 | | The Second Totoposte War took place in 1903 when the Greater Republic of Central America was to be reformed. However, the President of Guatemala, Manuel Estrada Cabrera, refused to re-join the Greater Republic. Insistent on reforming the nation, the President of El Salvador, Tomás Regalado, declared war on Guatemala. After a few months of no armed conflict taking place, the war ended after 84 days. | North America |
| Third Totoposte War | | 20th | 1906 | 28 July 1906 | The Third Totoposte War was an armed conflict that took place in 1906 between El Salvador and Guatemala. With the support of Mexico, the President of El Salvador, Tomás Regalado, declared war on Guatemala. It did not take long for the Mexican and El Salvadoran armies to retreat, resulting in the end of the war in July 1906. The Treaty of Marblehead was signed on 20 July 1906, marking the official end of all three Totoposte Wars. | North America |
| Treaty of Marblehead | | 20th | 20 July 1906 | | The Treaty of Marblehead was signed on 20 July 1906 by representatives from Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Organised by United States and Mexican ministers, the peace treaty signalled the official end to the third and final Totoposte War. Among other articles, the treaty agreed to the removal of military forces and the exchange of prisoners. | North America |
| Barrios’ War of Reunification | | 19th | 28 February 1885 | 14 April 1885 | Barrios’ War of Reunification, known in Spanish as Intentona de Barrios, was a war instigated by Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios. The conflict lasted for approximately six weeks, beginning on 28 February 1885 and ending on 14 April 1885. Barrios intended to reunify the Federation of Central America by force, following its collapse in 1838. Although peace was agreed upon on 14 April, Barrios died in combat on 2 April during the invasion of El Salvador, resulting in Guatemalan defeat. | North America |
| Mexico-Guatemala Conflict | Mexican-Guatemalan Imbroglio | 20th | 30 December 1958 | 15 September 1959 | The Mexico-Guatemala Conflict, also referred to as the Mexican-Guatemalan Imbroglio, was an armed conflict that took place in waters just off of the Pacific coast of Mexico, from 30 December 1958 to 15 September 1959. The conflict began when the Guatemalan Air Force open fired on a number of Mexican fishing boats located in Guatemalan territory. The incident resulted in the death of three fishermen and 14 others were wounded. A ceasefire ended the conflict, but tensions between Mexico and Guatemala remained high. | North America |
| Malespín’s War | | 19th | 25 October 1844 | 13 February 1845 | Malespín’s War, known in Spanish as Guerra de Malespín, was an armed conflict resulting from the El Salvadoran and Honduran invasion of Nicaragua. The conflict began on 25 October 1844 and lasted until 13 February 1845. The invasion of Nicaragua had taken place due to the changing political landscape in Central America. Civil unrest ensued after failed elections, for which Nicaraguan liberals were blamed by the El Salvadoran and Honduran governments. The war ended in victory for Nicaragua, and a peace treaty was subsequently signed. | North America |
| Granada-Leon War | Granada-Leon Civil War | 19th | 1854 | 1855 | The Granada-Leon War, also known as the Granada-Leon Civil War, was a conflict that took place between 1854 and 1855 in Nicaragua. The war began when Fruto Chamorro, leader of the Conservative Party of Nicaragua, after being elected through a fraudulent election, moved the capital to Granada, forming a new constitution without the approval of the government. On behalf of liberals based in Leon, Francisco Castellón Sanabria asked William Walker, a US filibuster, to help them retake control. | North America |
| Banana Wars | | 19th, 20th | 21 April 1898 | 1934 | The Banana Wars were a series of conflicts enacted by the United States of America in Central America and the Caribbean. Beginning on 21 April 1898, the US took military occupation of several Central American and Caribbean countries. The conflict occurred due to the economic and militaristic opportunities available to the US, which included securing the Panama Canal. The conflicts ended in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were named the Banana Wars much later, after the tropical produce exported from Central America and the Caribbean. | North America |
| Esquipulas Nicaraguan Peace Agreement | Central American Peace Accords | 20th | 7 August 1987 | | The Esquipulas Nicaraguan Peace Agreement, also known as the Central American Peace Accords, was a peace treaty signed on 7 August 1987 by the presidents of a number of Central American countries including Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica. The peace agreement set out to settle the many military conflicts that Central American countries had experienced over a long period of time. The treaty defined a host of measures to promote national reconciliation and democratisation, including free elections and assistance to refugees. It also laid the foundation for international verification procedures and established a timetable for implementation. | North America |
| 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity | General Treaty of Peace and Amity, 1923 | 20th | 7 February 1923 | 1934 | The 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity, also known as the General Treaty of Peace and Amity, 1923, was a peace treaty signed by representatives of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica, on 7 February 1923. The treaty established that these five nations would not recognize a government brought to power through illegal means such as a revolution or military coup. In 1934, the treaty was denounced by the Central American Court of Justice. | North America |
| War of 1907 | | 20th | 11 June 1907 | 20 December 1907 | The War of 1907, known in Spanish as Guerra de 1907, was an armed conflict between El Salvador and a coalition that included Nicaragua, Honduras, American filibusters, and El Salvadoran exiles. The conflict took place over the course of one day, but the war formally occurred between 11 June and 20 December 1907. The one day of active conflict resulted in victory for El Salvador, after which other conflicts broke out between Honduras and Nicaragua. The war officially ended when the nations signed a treaty establishing the Central American Court of Justice. | North America |
| 1907 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity | Central American Peace Conference of 1907 | 20th | 17 September 1907 | 1923 | The 1907 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity, also known as the Central American Peace Conference of 1907, was signed in Washington D.C. on 17 September 1907. The peace treaty was organized by the United States of America and Mexico in order to help the Central American nations resolve their conflicts. After the peace treaty was signed in September, the conference was held in Washington D.C. from 14 November to 20 December to continue the peace talks. Conflicts continued between Central American nations, and the treaty was redeveloped in 1923. | North America |
| Panama War of Independence | Panama Revolution | 19th | 10 November 1821 | 28 November 1821 | The Panama War of Independence, also known as the Panama Revolution, was a bloodless conflict which led to Panama becoming independent from Spain and forming the Republic of Panama. The First Cry of Independence was first called on 10 November 1821 in La Villa de Los Santos. The independence revolt was led by José de Fábrega once the Spanish governor left Panama. After gaining a foothold in Panama City without bloodshed, independence was declared, with the official date of Panama’s independence from Spain being 28 November 1821. | North America |
| Independence of Panama from Colombia | | 20th | 3 November 1903 | 3 November 1903 | The Independence of Panama from Colombia formally took place on 3 November 1903. The Republic of Panama had been formed in 1821 when Panama became independent from Spain. In doing so, Panama joined the confederation of Gran Colombia, a state which encompassed much of Central America and the northern nations of South America. Panamanians revolted against the Colombian government and formed a government junta, and consequently became the independent Republic of Panama | North America |
| Ochomogo War | Battle of Ochomogo | 19th | 5 April 1823 | 5 April 1823 | The Ochomogo War, also known as the Battle of Ochomogo, was a civil conflict that took place on 5 April 1823 in Costa Rica. The battle was fought by Republicans of the First Costa Rican Republic and Costa Rican Imperialists loyal to the First Mexican Empire. Only a few weeks after the Republicans won the Battle of Ochomogo did the First Mexican Empire cease to exist. Gregorio José Ramírez led the Republicans and assumed dictatorship of the country after the battle. He did so for ten days to restore public order and subsequently organised the new government. | North America |
| League War | | 19th | September 1835 | October 1835 | The League War was the second civil war of Costa Rica, which took place from September 1835 to October 1835. The conflict was fought by the city of San José (the capital as of 1823),against the cities of Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia (known as the League of Three Cities). The war was initiated by the repeal of the Ambulance Law, which oversaw the rotation of money among the four cities. The soldiers of San José defeated the militia from the other cities, resulting in the consolidation of San José as the capital city of Costa Rica. | North America |
| Porras-Anderson Treaty | Porras-Anderson Convention | 20th | 17 March 1910 | 21 February 1921 | The Porras-Anderson Treaty, also known as the Porras-Anderson Convention, was a peace treaty confirming a previous agreement that had awarded Costa Rica some territory of the Atlantic side of the Coto region. The award had been given by United States Chief Justice Edward Douglass White in 1914, but it was frequently disputed by Panamanians. The Porras-Anderson Treaty was signed on 17 March 1910 to assert that both Panama and Costa Rica would abide by the award. The territory was later fought over during the Coto War of 1921. | North America |
| Arias-Caulderon Treaty | | 20th | 1941 | | The Arias-Caulderon Treaty was a peace treaty between Panama and Costa Rica signed in 1941. After decades of disputes over the Panama-Costa Rican border, particularly in the Coto region, the treaty signalled the end of the conflict by establishing the border. | North America |
| Calderonista Invasion of Costa Rica | | 20th | January 1955 | January 1955 | The Calderonista Invasion of Costa Rica was an armed rebellion that took place in Costa Rica in January 1955. Forces loyal to former president Rafael Calderón started the rebellion against the Costa Rican government, led by the president at the time of the rebellion, José Figueres Ferrer. The Calderón loyalists were also supported by the government of Nicaragua. The invasion resulted in victory for Ferrer’s Costa Rican government. | North America |
| Esguerra-Bárcenas Treaty | | 20th, 21st | 24 March 1928 | 2001 | The Esguerra-Bárcenas Treaty was signed on 24 March 1928 by representatives from Colombia and Nicaragua. The treaty was drafted to end the territorial dispute between the two nations, with Nicaragua agreeing to recognize Colombia’s sovereignty over the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. Similarly, Colombia agreed to recognise Nicaraguan treaties. Nicaragua disputed the treaty in 2001, setting out changes to the territories of each nation as the dispute went to the International Court of Justice. | North America |
| Wyke-Aycinena Treaty | Boundary of British Honduras Treaty | 19th | 30 April 1859 | | The Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, also known as the Boundary of British Honduras Treaty, was concluded and signed on 30 April 1859 by representatives from Great Britain and Guatemala. The treaty established the territorial borders for British Honduras, now known as the country of Belize. As well as establishing the border, the treaty gave access to nearby waterways for both Great Britain and Guatemala. | North America |
| Liévano-Brutus Treaty | | 20th | 17 February 1978 | | The Liévano-Brutus Treaty, also known as the Agreement on Delimitation of the Maritime Boundaries Between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Haiti, was signed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti on 17 February 1978. The treaty defined a maritime boundary between Haiti and Colombia. It was ratified in 1979, and as of 2023, the treaty is still active. | North America |
| Cañas-Jerez Treaty | Treaty of Limits between Costa Rica and Nicaragua | 19th | 15 April 1858 | | The Cañas-Jerez Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Limits between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, was concluded and signed on 15 April 1858 in the city of San José, Costa Rica. Negotiated by Maximo Jerez, representative for Nicaragua, and José María Cañas, representative for Costa Rica, the peace treaty was drafted with the aim of reducing the growing border tensions. The treaty remains active today. | North America |
| Bryan-Chamorro Treaty | | 20th | 5 August 1914 | 1970 | The Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed on 5 August 1914 by representatives from Nicaragua and the United States of America. The treaty allowed the United States to construct a canal across Nicaragua, build a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca, and lease the Corn Islands in the Caribbean. Despite protests by Nicaragua’s neighbouring countries, the treaty was signed, though eventually abolished in 1970. | North America |
| Extradition Treaty with the Dominican Republic | | 21st | 12 January 2015 | | The Extradition Treaty with the Dominican Republic, formally known as the Extradition Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Dominican Republic, was signed in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on 12 January 2015. The treaty replaced the Extradition Treaty of 1909 with the intention of updating and modernising the methods available for the extradition of serious criminal offenders. | North America |
| Treaty of Friendship and Alliance | | 19th | 4 April 1845 | | The Treaty of Friendship and Alliance between El Salvador and Guatemala was signed on 4 April 1845. Delegates from each country met in Sonsonate, Honduras to agree upon the formation of a national Central American authority. The delegates were to ensure internal peace and were instructed to invite representatives from Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. | North America |
| 1902 Treaty of Peace and Compulsory Arbitration | | 20th | 20 January 1902 | 1906 | The 1902 Treaty of Peace and Compulsory Arbitration was signed on 20 January 1902 by representatives from Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. The treaty was signed in Corinto, Nicaragua, forming an arbitration court. A number of smaller peace and compulsory arbitration treaties were signed in subsequent years between various Central American countries. Despite this, war broke out in 1906, rendering the treaty ineffectual. | North America |
| Treaty of San José | | 20th | 25 September 1906 | | The Treaty of San José was signed on 25 September 1906 by representatives from Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador during the San José Convention of 1906. The treaty stipulated that when settling difficulties among the signatory nations, the United States of America and Mexico would act as arbitrators for any conflicts. Articles of the treaty also called into question the potential for the re-establishment of the Central American Union. | North America |
| Robinson-Superior Treaty | | 19th | 7 September 1850 | 1875 | The Robinson-Superior Treaty was signed on 7 September 1850 by representatives from Great Britain and the Ojibwa native people of Canada. The treaty applied to the Ojibwa people living along the north shore of Lake Superior in Canada and was negotiated by William Benjamin Robinson. Robinson was given a budget of £7,500 (at the time) to purchase as much land as possible. This forced the Ojibwa people out of the region and into reservations. The treaty became untenable by 1875 when the British stopped the annuity payments to the native people. | North America |
| Robinson-Huron Treaty | | 19th | 9 September 1850 | 1875 | The Robinson-Huron Treaty was signed on 9 September 1850 by representatives from Great Britain and the Ojibwa native people of Canada, just two days after the signing of the Robinson-Superior Treaty. The treaty applied to the Ojibwa people living on the shores of Lake Huron and was negotiated by William Benjamin Robinson. Robinson purchased large tracts of land on behalf of Great Britain, with the Ojibwa people being forced from their land into reservations. By 1875, the British government stopped upholding the treaty commitments. | North America |
| Douglas Treaties | Vancouver Island Treaties | 19th | 1850-1854 | | The Douglas Treaties, also known as the Vancouver Island Treaties, were 14 treaties signed between 1850 and 1854. The treaties were signed by Sir James Douglas and a number of native peoples living across approximately 927 square kilometres of land. James Douglas was a key figure in the Hudson Bay Company and was governor of the colony of Vancouver Island. Native peoples retained the right to fish and hunt on the surrendered lands and could retain existing village lands. The treaties have been disputed many times. | North America |
| Great Treaty of 1722 | Treaty of Albany | 18th | 1722 | | The Great Treaty of 1722, also known as the Treaty of Albany, was signed in 1722 by five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy and the English colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The treaty established a territorial boundary between the English settlers and the Iroquois nations. The Governor of Virginia, Alexander Spotswood, used the treaty as an opportunity to expand the colony, and by extension, the British Empire. This is the oldest treaty still recognised in the United States. | North America |
| Nanfan Treaty | | 18th | 19 July 1701 | 1726 | The Nanfan Treaty, also known as the Deed from the Five Nations to the King, of their Beaver Hunting Ground was a treaty signed on 19 July 1701 by representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy and Great Britain. The treaty was signed on behalf of Great Britain by John Nanfan, the acting colonial governor of New York at the time. The Iroquois nations granted a vast tract of land covering a large portion of the American Midwest and southern Ontario. The treaty was later amended in 1726 to allow the Iroquois nations to occupy land. | North America |
| Costa Rican Civil War | Revolution of 1948 | 20th | 12 March 1948 | 24 April 1948 | The Costa Rican Civil War, also known as the Revolution of 1948, took place from 12 March 1948 to 24 April 1948. The 44-day conflict began as a result of suspected election fraud that was believed to have taken place in February 1948. This led to an uprising against the government of Teodoro Picado Michalski. Led by José Figueres Ferrer, the rebels won the civil war, and Picado’s government was dismantled. Ferrer organised a provisional government and demilitarised Costa Rica. The government was subsequently handed over to Otilio Ulate Blanco, who served as President of Costa Rica from 1949 to 1953. | North America |
| Coto War | | 20th | 20 February 1921 | 5 March 1921 | The Coto War, known in Spanish as Guerra de Coto, was an armed conflict between Costa Rica and Panama that took place from 21 February 1921 to 5 March 1921. The Coto district was disputed throughout the 20th century, with it being designated as Costa Rican land in 1900 but remaining occupied by Panamanians. On 21 February 1921, Costa Rican troops advanced on Coto to capture the territory through military efforts. The US intervened and demanded both sides cease hostilities. The war resulted in Nuevo Pueblo de Coto being annexed to Costa Rica. | North America |
| Munayṭirah Revolt | | 8th | 759 | 760 | The Munayṭirah Revolt was the second rebellion by Christian people living in Lebanon against the ruling Abbasid Caliphate. The rebellion took place in 759 out of the oppressive rule of the Abbasids over the Christians. The Christian inhabitants of Baalbek, Lebanon rebelled against the actions of a collector of kharaj, an Islamic tax, in the area. The Abbasid Caliphate responded with an ambush on the rebels and the rebellion ended in 760 where the Christian inhabitants fled from the villages and Arab tribes repopulated the previously Christian regions. | Asia |
| Operation Shield and Arrow | 2023 Gaza-Israel Clashes | 21st | 9 May 2023 | 13 May 2023 | Operation Shield and Arrow, also known as the 2023 Gaza-Israel clashes, started on 9 May 2023 with the killing of three suspected leaders of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad and civilians by the Israeli military, which was Israel’s response to rocket attacks from the Palestinian Islamic Jihad into Israel. The rocket attacks were triggered by the death of a hunger striker in an Israeli jail who had links to the Palestinian Islamic Jihad. Palestinian militants responded to Israeli airstrikes into Gaza with Operation Revenge of the Free. A ceasefire was reached on 13 May 2023. | Asia |
| Siege of Baghdad | | 13th | 1258 | 1258 | The Siege of Baghdad took place from 29 January to 10 February 1258 in Baghdad in present-day Iraq between the Mongol Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mongol leader, Möngke Khan, aimed to expand his empire into Mesopotamia and wanted Baghdad’s Abbasid Caliphate to submit to the Mongol Ilkhanate and pay tribute to them by supporting them with military in Persia. The Abbasids refused to submit, which resulted in Mongol forces and allied troops besieging the city until the Abbasids surrendered. | Asia |
| Khojaly Massacre | | 20th | 26 February 1992 | 26 February 1992 | The Khojaly Massacre occurred on 26 February 1992 during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Azerbaijanis and Armenians who both laid claims to the region. Azerbaijani forces had blockaded Stepanakert, the capital of Nagorno-Karabakh, in February 1992, and Armenian forces made an ultimatum stating they would attack unless attacks on Stepanakert stopped. The ultimatum was ignored, and Armenian forces massacred Azerbaijani inhabitants of Khojaly, a town with a large Azerbaijani population in Nagorno-Karabakh that had an airport and was used as the base for attacking Stepanakert. | Asia |
| Baskinta Revolt | | 8th | 752 | 754 | The Baskinta Revolt was one of the Mount Lebanon revolts of 752 and 759. It began in 752 in the Beqaa region, in present-day Lebanon. The Mardaïtes, an early Christian group, revolted against the ruling Abbasid Caliphate due to the oppressive treatment of Lebanese Christians. The rebellion failed when the Mardaïte leader Baskinta got drunk and was attacked by Abbasid soldiers, who then reclaimed control of the Beqaa region. | Asia |
| Kharijite Rebellion | | 9th | 866 | 896 | The Kharijite Rebellion from 866 to 896 against the Abbasid Caliphate took place in Mosul and Diyar Rabi’a, Al-Jazira in upper Mesopotamia, corresponding to areas in present-day northern Iraq and Iran. The Kharijite was an early Islamic sect that had led previous uprisings and rebellions against Muslim governments and rejected the Abbasid’s rule and because of religious beliefs that rejected the legitimacy claims of ruling tribes and Ali’s descendants. The Abbasid Caliphate aimed to suppress the rebellion and eventually managed to restore their authority in the region. | Asia |
| Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363 | Treaty of Dura | 4th | 363 | 363 | The Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363, also known as the Treaty of Dura, was a treaty between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire that concluded the Roman emperor Julian’s Persian expedition into Sassanid territory of Persia. After Julian’s death in the Battle of Samarra in June 363, his successor, Jovian, continued the Roman campaign but eventually petitioned the Sasanian King, Shapur II, for peace. The treaty’s terms included a thirty-year truce, territorial gains, territorial returns to the Sasanian Empire, and the end of the Roman alliance with Armenia. | Asia |
| Iraqi Civil War | | 21st | 22 February 2006 | 15 May 2008 | The Iraqi Civil War was fought between 22 February 2006 and 15 May 2008. It was fought between sectarian groups including Al Qaeda and the Mahdi Army, as well as Iraq’s Shiite-led government with a coalition of United States-led forces. In February 2006, the Sunni organisation, Al-Qaeda, bombed one of the holiest Shia Islam sites, the Al-Askari Shrine, which triggered the violence between Sunni and Shiite civilians and militias in Iraq. Shia militant attacks on Sunnis were in response to Al-Qaeda’s attacks on Shias, but clashes between rival Shiite groups also occurred. | Asia |
| Treaty of Lima (1929) | | 20th | 3 June 1929 | | The Treaty of Lima sought to end the controversy over the sovereignty of the cities of Tacna and Arica and improve relations between them. Both agreed that Tacna would become Peruvian territory and Arica Chilean. Chile also agreed to pay $6 million in compensation. The border should be set by a mixed commission made up of members appointed by both countries; in case of disagreement, the vote of the United States would intervene, and their decision would be final. The mixed commission completed its delimitation work in 1930 and in 1999 both countries signed an act to execute the pending clauses. | South America |
| Rio de Janeiro Treaty | | 19th | 29 August 1825 | | The Treaty of Rio de Janeiro was the agreement between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Empire of Brazil that sought to end the Brazilian War of Independence. The Empire of Portugal recognised the Empire of Brazil as an independent nation, Pedro I (son of the Emperor of Portugal) as Emperor of Brazil, and received economic compensation. The Empire of Brazil agreed not to accept the proposal of any Portuguese colonies to join it, as well as to respect the property of the Portuguese in Brazil. Both agreed to peace, a friendly relationship and to restore their commercial relations. | South America |
| Kalinga War | | 3rd BC | 261 BCE | 261 BCE | The Kalinga War took place in ancient India in 261 BCE and was fought between the Maurya Empire and the Kalinga kingdom, in present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh, India. The Maurya Empire’s invasion of Kalinga was motivated by imperialistic ambitions. Due to its wealth and commerce, Kalinga was a threat to the Maurya Empire, and it had previously failed in its attempts to conquer the kingdom. The Maurya Empire was victorious in the war, however, its violence impacted its Emperor, Ashoka, who subsequently ended his aims for military expansion. | Asia |
| Battle of Ager Sanguinis | Battle of the Field of Blood | 12th | 28 June 1119 | 14 August 1119 | The Battle of Ager Sanguinis, also known as the Battle of the Field of Blood, was fought on 28 June 1119 between the Principality of Antioch, a Christian Crusader state in present-day Antakya, Turkey, and Ilghazi, the Artuqid ruler of Mardin, who ruled over Aleppo, Syria. The battle was fought over Ilghazi’s invasion of Antioch in response to the Crusaders’ capture of Azaz, Syria, which meant that Aleppo was at risk of attack. The battle between the two sides resulted in Ilghazi’s victory, but he did not advance further and only some regions in north-western Syria came under Muslim rule. | Asia |
| Hejaz-Nejd War | Second Saudi-Hashemite War | 20th | September 1924 | December 1925 | The Hejaz-Nejd War, also known as the Second Saudi-Hashemite War, was fought between the Saudi Sultan Abdulaziz of Nejd and the Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz from September 1924 until December 1925. The war followed a previous conflict between the two sides that took place in 1919. When Nejd pilgrims were denied access to holy places situated in Hejaz, war was sparked, and Nejd forces advanced into Hejaz of present-day Saudi Arabia. The war resulted in Abdulaziz’s victory and the creation of the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz. | Asia |
| War in Abkhazia | | 20th | 20 May 1998 | 26 May 1998 | The War in Abkhazia began on 20 May 1998 in Abkhazia, which had declared itself independent from Georgia in 1992. War was triggered by an insurgency led by ethnic Georgians against the Abkhazian government. Prior to the war, Georgian paramilitary forces had attacked the Abkhazian military and violent clashes had occurred during local elections in which Georgian refugees could not participate. Abkhazia responded to the uprising with an offensive, leading Georgian residents fled. Two cease-fires were signed, but fighting continued until the Georgian guerrillas were forced out on 26 May 1998. | Asia |
| Maoist Insurgency in Turkey | People’s War in Turkey | 20th, 21st | 24 April 1972 | Ongoing | The Maoist Insurgency in Turkey, also known as the People’s War in Turkey, is an ongoing low-level insurgency that began on 24 April 1972 between Maoist insurgent groups and the Turkish government. It mainly began in the Tunceli Province of eastern Turkey where the population aimed to avenge the repression of the Dersim rebellion. The Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist-Leninist aimed to wage a people’s war, and the insurgency has consisted of militant and guerrilla attacks by groups such as the Liberation Army of the Workers and Peasants of Turkey (TİKKO) and People's Partisan Forces (PHG). | Asia |
| Naxalite-Maoist Insurgency | | 20th, 21st | 18 May 1967 | Ongoing | The Naxalite-Maoist Insurgency is a conflict that began on 18 May 1967 between Maoist groups known as Naxalites or Naxals and the Indian government. The insurgency has mainly taken place in what is called the Red Corridor, also known as the Red Zone, a region in eastern, central, and southern India. The Naxalites view the insurgency as similar to a people’s war against the government, aiming for improvements in land rights and jobs for agricultural labourers and the poor. India’s government considers Naxalism as a threat to the country’s internal security. The insurgency is ongoing but has diminished steadily over the years. | Asia |
| War over Water | Battle over Water | 20th | November 1964 | May 1967 | The War over Water, also known as the Battle over Water, was fought from November 1964 to May 1967 between Israel and the Arab states of Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. The war was over control of the water source of the Jordan River drainage basin. Small-scale skirmishes had occurred since 1949 and led to the Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan. The war was triggered in response to Israel pumping water from the Sea of Galilee, also called Lake Tiberias or Kinneret, and the aim of the Arab states to divert the Jordan River’s headwaters. Conflict ensued on the Israel-Syria border, and the war is considered to be a contributing factor to the Six-Day War that began in June 1967. | Asia |
| Mughal-Portuguese War | | 20th | 1692 | 1693 | The Mughal-Portuguese War from 1692 to 1693 was fought in India between the Mughal Empire and the Portuguese Empire. The war began in retaliation to the Portuguese governor’s favour of the Marathas when he gave shelter to Maratha families. One of the refuges was the fort of Sidhgarh, which was captured by the Mughals. When the Portuguese denied the Mughals entry to their territory, they were attacked by the Mughals and other allied enemies of the Portuguese. Due to concerns about trade with Europe, the Mughal Emperor eventually ordered the war to end and for Portuguese prisoners to be released. | Asia |
| Anglo-Mughal War | Child’s War | 17th | 1686 | 1690 | The Anglo-Mughal War, also known as Child’s War, was fought between the English East India Company and the Mughal Empire between 1686 and 1690. The war was initiated when the Mughal Emperor broke off trading agreements with the East India Company due to their governor in London, Sir Josiah Child, intervening with the negotiations made by another English governor in Bengal. In response, Child declared war against the Mughal Empire, which ensued while various negotiations took place. The war resulted in the East India Company’s surrender, and a large fine was subsequently paid to the Mughal Empire. | Asia |
| 14 July Revolution | 1958 Iraqi Military Coup | 20th | 14 July 1958 | 14 July 1958 | The 14 July Revolution, also known as the 1958 Iraqi Military Coup, took place on 14 July 1958 in Iraq where the ruling Hashemite dynasty was overthrown by Iraqi Free Officers. The increase of Pan-Arab nationalism and frustration over policies, economic issues, Western influence in Iraq, and Iraq’s King Faisal II’s support of the British during the Suez Crisis, led to the formation of opposition groups and the subsequent coup. Iraqi Free Officers led the coup, seized Baghdad, and executed members of the Hashemite dynasty, which resulted in the establishment of the Iraqi Republic. | Asia |
| Treaty of Yandabo | | 19th | 24 February 1826 | 24 February 1826 | The Treaty of Yandabo was a peace treaty that was signed on 24 February 1826 between the Burmese Empire and the British Empire’s East India Company. The treaty was signed in Yandabo, a village in central Burma, and was the result of the British Empire’s victory in the First Anglo-Burmese War. The treaty concerned the territory of kingdoms that did not give their consent to the treaty, and the Burmese Empire was forced to agree to it without negotiation. The treaty set out that Burma would cede territory to the British, renounce their claims to Assam and Manipur, and pay an indemnity in sterling. | Asia |
| Yemenite War of 1979 | Second Yemenite War | 20th | 24 February 1979 | 19 March 1979 | The Yemenite War of 1979, also known as the Second Yemenite War, took place from 24 February to 19 March 1979. It was a conflict between the Yemen Arab Republic of North Yemen and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen of South Yemen. Hostility between North and South Yemen increased after the North Yemen president was killed, with the head of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen being killed days later. South Yemen troops advanced into the north, but due to aid from Saudi Arabia and the United States, North Yemen was able to halt the advances. The war ended with a ceasefire, and the signing of the Kuwait Agreement of 1979. | Asia |
| Second Anglo-Burmese War | | 19th | 5 April 1852 | 20 January 1853 | The Second Anglo-Burmese War took place from 5 April 1852 to 20 January 1853 and was fought between the Burmese Empire and the British Empire. The British sent Commodore George Lambert to Burma due to a governor’s arrest of two British captains whom he aimed to extort money from. Burma removed the governor, but his successor refused to meet Lambert, which provoked a naval blockade and an ultimatum, which Burma did not respond to. Warfare ensued while a Burmese revolution took place. The war resulted in a British victory with more Burmese territory being annexed to British India, with the British annexing Pegu, present-day Bago, Myanmar. | Asia |
| First Anglo-Burmese War | First Burma War | 19th | 5 March 1824 | 24 February 1826 | The First Anglo-Burma War, also known as the First Burma War, took place from 5 March 1824 to 24 February 1826 between the British Empire’s East India Company and the Burmese Empire. Burma was angered by raids in their recently acquired territory, Arakan, present-day Rakhine State, and the British were angered by Burma’s territorial gains near East India Company-occupied Chittagong. The British declared war with the aim of expanding their influence as well as to limit French influence in Burma. The war ended with a treaty that agreed for Burma to cede territory to the British and pay an indemnity. | Asia |
| Pompeiian-Parthian Invasion of 40 BCE | | 1st BC | 40 BCE | 38 BCE | The Pompeiian-Parthian Invasion of 40 BCE refers to the Pompeiian and Parthian Empire’s invasion of eastern Roman territory that took place between 40 and 38 BCE. The Parthians and Romans had historically been at tension with one another, with Julius Caesar’s unrealized plans of an invasion of Parthia and the Roman defeat of the Parthian and Pompeiian alliance in the Liberators’ Civil War. The outcome of the civil war led the Parthians and Pompeiians to invade Roman territory in Asia Minor. The war eventually resulted in a Roman victory that drove the Parthians out of Syria. | Asia |
| Revolt of Babylon | | 7th BC | 626 BCE | 616 BCE | The Revolt of Babylon in 626 BC refers to Nabopolassar’s war of independence that aimed to gain control over Babylonia against the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The revolt was the last in a series of rebellions by the Babylonians against the Assyrian rule over Babylonia that sought to restore independence. The Assyrians fought against the revolt, however, by 22 or 23 November, Nabopolassar was given the title of King of Babylon, resulting in Babylonia becoming an independent kingdom. The Assyrians made further campaigns into Babylonia but ultimately lost their reign over the kingdom. | Asia |
| Hamidian Massacres | Armenian Massacres | 19th | 1894 | 1897 | The Hamidian Massacres, also known as the Armenian Massacres, refer to the Ottoman Empire’s massacre of Armenians and took place between 1894 and 1897. The Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline and Sultan Abdul Hamid II aimed to retain the empire’s imperialist control. At the same time, there was a rise of Armenian nationalistic sentiment. The Armenians had approached foreign powers in regards to reforms to how they were treated within the Ottoman Empire, which the Ottomans saw as treachery and against Sharia law. | Asia |
| Bangladesh Genocide | Gonohotta | 20th | 25 March 1971 | 16 December 1971 | The Bangladesh Genocide, also known as the Gonohotta, began on 25 March 1971 in East Pakistan, present-day Bangladesh. The West-Pakistan-dominated Pakistani government began a military campaign, Operation Searchlight, on 25 March 1971 that aimed to suppress Bengali self-determination in East Pakistan and to neutralize the Bengali independence movement with the belief that the citizens of East Pakistan were second-class citizens. The mass killings and rapes of Bengalis were carried out by the Pakistan army and ended on 16 December 1971. | Asia |
| Pakistani Instrument of Surrender | | 20th | 16 December 1971 | 16 December 1971 | The Pakistani Instrument of Surrender of 16 December 1971 was a treaty signed in Dacca, present-day Bangladesh between India, Pakistan, and the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. The treaty agreed for the surrender of the Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh, thereby ending the Bangladesh Liberation War between West Pakistan and East Pakistan, present-day Bangladesh, as well as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The Pakistan Eastern Command would come under the control of Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint-commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces. | Asia |
| Magadha-Anga War | | 6th BC | 540 BCE | 535 BCE | The Magadha-Anga War took place between 540 and 535 BCE between the Anga Kingdom and the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha, an empire of ancient India. The war was fought to avenge King Brahmadatta of Anga’s defeat of the father of King Bimbisara of Magadha, who had been an older contemporary of Brahmadatta. The war resulted in victory for Bimbisara, with Anga being annexed to the Magadha Empire. Bimbisara’s son, Ajatashatru, was appointed governor. | Asia |
| Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 | Second Kashmir War | 20th | 8 April 1965 | 23 September 1965 | The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, also known as the Second Kashmir War, was fought between Pakistan and India, from April to September 1965. The war was caused by the border disputes between India and Pakistan since the partition of British India. Pakistan believed Jammu and Kashmir rightfully belonged to them due to this union territory being a majority-Muslim state. War was triggered by Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar in Indian-ruled Jammu and Kashmir which aimed to create an insurgency. The war fought in Kashmir and along the border of India and Pakistan, ended with a ceasefire after foreign powers intervened. | Asia |
| 1913 Ottoman Coup d’état | Raid on the Sublime Porte | 20th | 23 January 1913 | 23 January 1913 | The 1913 Ottoman Coup d’état, also known as the Raid of the Sublime Porte, took place on 23 January 1913. The coup was led by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) against the Freedom and Accord Party of the Ottoman government. The CUP’s aim was to regain power from their rivals, the Freedom and Accord Party. The coup was triggered when the Turkish people and the CUP were outraged by the demand to give the city of Adrianople, present-day Edirne, to Bulgaria. During the coup, the Ottoman Empire’s Minister of War, Nazım Pasha, was assassinated, and the CUP forced the Grand Vizier, Kâmil Pasha, to resign, after which it took control of the empire. | Asia |
| 2017 Iraqi-Kurdish Conflict | Kirkuk Crisis | 21st | 15 October 2017 | 27 October 2017 | The 2017 Iraqi-Kurdish conflict, also known as the Kirkuk Crisis, was fought from 15 October to 27 October 2017 between the Kurdistan Regional Government and Iraq’s central government. The Iraq central government invaded territory, including the oil-rich Kirkuk, in the Kurdistan Region because the Kurdistan Regional Government had rejected their demands for the territory to be returned. The war came after a Kurdish referendum vote for independence from Iraq that included the disputed areas. The conflict resulted in the Iraqi government capturing 20% of the Kurdistan Region, including Kirkuk. | Asia |
| Siege of Lachish | | 8th BC | 701 BCE | 701 BCE | The Siege of Lachish of 701 BCE was the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s siege on Lachish, a town in the Kingdom of Judah, present-day Israel. Several kingdoms had stopped paying tribute to Sennacharib, the Assyrian king, and in response, the king declared a campaign to conquer the rebelling kingdoms. When King Hezekiah of Judah rebelled against Assyrian control by ceasing to pay Judah’s taxes to Sennacharib, the Assyrians conquered the walled city of Lachish while the kind was on his way to Jerusalem. | Asia |
| Treaty of Lahore | | 19th | 9 March 1846 | 1846 | The Treaty of Lahore was a peace treaty that was signed on 9 March 1846 following the British East India Company’s defeat of the Sikh Empire in the First Anglo-Sikh War. Unrest in Lahore and escalated tension between the British and Sikhs had led the British to declare war on the Sikhs. The treaty’s terms agreed for the Sikhs to surrender valuable territory to the British, and for the Lahore Durbar, the Sikh court of Lahore, to pay an indemnity. This they could not raise, and so further territory was ceded to the British. | Asia |
| Treaty of Turkmenchay | | 19th | 21 February 1828 | | The Treaty of Turkmenchay was agreed between the Qajar dynasty of Iran and the Russian Empire in Turkmenchay, a city in present-day Iran. The treaty followed the Russo-Persian War of 1826 to 1828 which Russia had won, with Russia now threatening to occupy Tehran unless the treaty was signed. The terms of the treaty were for Persia, present-day Iran, to cede to Russia the Erivan Khanate, Nakhchivan Khanate, and remaining Talysh Khanate, corresponding to areas in present-day Armenia, Turkey, and Azerbaijan. | Asia |
| Insurgency in Balochistan | | 20th, 21st | 1948 | Ongoing | The Insurgency in Balochistan is an ongoing nationalist revolt that began in July 1948 between Baloch insurgents and the Pakistani and Iranian government in the Balochistan region in southwestern Pakistan, south-eastern Iran and southern Afghanistan. Five insurgencies have occurred since 1948. The Balochistan separatists aim for autonomy and to have more control over the region’s resources due to resent regarding economic inequality and neglect in education, employment, and development in the Baloch region. | Asia |
| First Intifada | | 20th | 8 December 1987 | 13 September 1993 | The First Intifada was an uprising against Israeli repression of Palestinians in Palestinian Territories and Israel that took place from 8 December 1987 to 13 September 1993. Israel’s conquests during the Six-Day War, along with violence from Israeli soldiers, rising unemployment, and deportations of Palestinians, increased Palestinian nationalism and discontent. The Palestinians wanted Israel to withdraw from territory it had occupied since 1967, to lift curfews and checkpoints, and to create a Palestinian state on the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In 1993, a peace process was agreed in the Oslo Accords. | Asia |
| Second Intifada | Al-Aqsa Intifada | 21st | 28 September 2000 | 8 February 2005 | The Second Intifada, also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada, was the second Palestinian uprising against Israel. It began on 28 September 2000 following Israel’s refusal to uphold the Oslo Accords and Camp David Summit’s failure to agree on an Israeli-Palestinian peace process. The Palestinians wanted to improve the post-Oslo conditions through the Intifada. Israeli politician Ariel Sharon’s visit to a holy site in Jerusalem triggered the uprising, which was more violent than the previous Intifada. It ended on 8 February 2005 with a ceasefire and the Sharm El Sheikh Summit of 2005. | Asia |
| 1978 South Lebanon Conflict | Operation Litani | 20th | 14 March 1978 | 21 March 1978 | The 1978 South Lebanon Conflict, also known as Operation Litani in Israel, was a conflict that took place from 14 to 21 March 1978 between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation. Israel invaded southern Lebanon in retaliation to the Coastal Road Massacre on 11 March 1978, which was in response to ongoing strife between Israel and Palestine. Israel aimed to force Palestinian militants away from the border and out of south Lebanon. On 19 March 1978, the United Nations Security Council created a resolution that demanded Israel withdraw its forces from Lebanon. | Asia |
| 1929 Palestine Riots | Buraq Uprising | 20th | 23 August 1929 | 29 August 1929 | The 1929 Palestine Riots, also known as the Buraq Uprising, took place from 23 to 29 August 1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine. The riots were due to escalating tensions between Muslims and Jews over a long dispute about access to the Western Wall, a holy site in Jerusalem. Arabs were concerned about their economic future and the effects of increasing Jewish immigration. Rumours that Zionists aimed to seize control of holy sites for both religions triggered the riots, with British police intervening. During the riots, looting, burning and attacks of villages took place, as well as the 1929 Hebron Massacre. | Asia |
| Second Nagorno-Karabakh War | 44-Day War | 21st | 27 September 2020 | 10 November 2020 | The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, also known as the 44-Day War, took place from 27 September 2020 to 10 November 2020 and was fought between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and the breakaway state of Artsakh. The war concerned Armenia and Azerbaijan’s disputes over control of the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh region. Increasing violations of the ceasefire of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War led to the second war, in which Azerbaijan aimed for full control of the region. The war resulted with Azerbaijan, allied with Turkey, reclaiming territory, and led to the establishment of the Lachin corridor. | Asia |
| First Nagorno-Karabakh War | | 20th | 20 February 1988 | 12 May 1994 | The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War, also known as the 44-Day War, took place from 27 September 2020 to 10 November 2020 and was fought between Azerbaijan, Armenia, and the breakaway state of Artsakh. The war concerned Armenia and Azerbaijan’s disputes over control of the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh region. Increasing violations of the ceasefire of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War led to the second war, in which Azerbaijan aimed for full control of the region. The war resulted in Azerbaijan, allied with Turkey, reclaiming territory, and led to the establishment of the Lachin corridor. | Asia |
| Conquest of Ha’il | Second Saudi-Rashidi War | 20th | 1921 | 2 November 1921 | The Conquest of Ha’il, also known as the Second Saudi-Rashidi War, took place in 1921 and was part of the political and military campaign of the Unification of Saudi Arabia. It was fought by Saudi forces under Ibn Saud against the Rashidi-ruled Emirate of Jabal Shammar, also known as the Emirate of Ha’il. The war occurred in Ha’il, the Emirate of Jabal Shammar’s capital, which is a city in present-day Saudi Arabia. The British supported the Saudis in the Conquest of Ha’il, which was conquered by 2 November 1921 and subsequently became part of the Sultanate of Nejd. | Asia |
| Malabar Rebellion | Moplah Rebellion | 20th | 20 August 1921 | 1922 | The Malabar Rebellion, also known as the Moplah Rebellion, began on 20 August 1921 in Malabar, Kerala, British India, present-day India. The indigenous Mappila Muslims revolted against the British East India Company and the Jemni upper classes. Resentment had been caused by the introduction of Western juridical systems, in which all land became the private property of the Jemni upper class, so Mappilas who were agricultural labourers lost formal or customary rights. Mappilas forcibly converted Hindus to Islam during the rebellion, which ended when the British imposed martial law. | Asia |
| Constitutional Revolution of Iran | | 20th | 1905 | 1911 | The Constitutional Revolution of Iran occurred from 1905 to December 1911. Protests against tariff collections in order to repay a Russian loan for a royal tour marked the beginning of the revolution in 1905. The rebels demanded a parliament out of dissatisfaction with the Qajar dynasty’s rule. A constitution was created, but the next shah opposed it and a civil war between the shah and the reformers ensued. In 1909, the constitution was re-established, but a year later, there was conflict within the revolutionary movement. | Asia |
| Turkish-Armenian War | Eastern Front | 21st | 24 September 2020 | 2 December 2020 | The Turkish-Armenian War, also known as the Eastern Front in Turkey, took place between 24 September and 2 December 1920. The war was fought between the First Republic of Armenia and the Turkish National Movement in reaction to the Treaty of Sèvres, in which the Republic of Armenia was given areas of eastern Anatolia as reparation for Ottoman persecution of Armenians during World War I. Turkish Nationalists crossed into Armenia and captured territory in a surprise offensive, a victory that was followed by the Soviet Union's occupation and annexation of Armenia. | Asia |
| Farhud | | 20th | 1 June 1941 | 2 June 1941 | Farhud was a pogrom that was carried out by soldiers and policemen who supported the pro-Nazi government Rashid Ali against the Jewish population of Baghdad, Iraq, between 1 and 2 June 1941. The violence began when Rashid Ali’s pro-Nazi government of Iraq was defeated by the British in the Anglo-Iraqi War, and allegations were made that Iraqi Jews had aided the British. There was a history of violence against Jews living in Iraq prior to the Farhud and antisemitic propaganda was broadcast. The violence stopped when British troops intervened with a curfew and shot violators on sight. | Asia |
| Syria-Lebanon Campaign | Operation Exporter | 20th | 8 June 1941 | 14 July 1941 | The Syria-Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, refers to the British Empire’s invasion of Vichy France-controlled Syria and Lebanon during World War II. The campaign took place between 8 June and 14 July 1941. The British invasion sought to prevent the Axis powers from using Syria and Lebanon as bases for attacks on Egypt, as the Vichy admiral François Darlan had already granted German aircrafts access to their airfields in Syria for attacks against the British in Iraq. The French called for an armistice, leading to the Armistice of Saint Jean d’Acre ending the campaign. | Asia |
| Vadda Ghalughara | Sikh Genocide | 18th | 5 February 1762 | April 1762 | The Vadda Ghalughara, also known as the Sikh Genocide, was the mass murder of unarmed Sikhs by the Afghan forces of the Durrani Empire. It began on 5 February 1762 in India’s Punjab region. This came after the Sikhs had been oppressed by the Durrani governor of Lahore, various conflicts between the Muslim forces of the Afghan Durranis and Sikhs had taken place, as well as the massacre of Chhota Ghalughara. The Durrani leader saw the Sikhs as a threat after they attacked Durrani forces in 1761 to liberate women captives. The Durrani Empire aimed to wipe out the Sikhs in the region in order to secure territorial Afghani control, and it is estimated that between 10,000 and 50,0000 Sikhs were killed. | Asia |
| Sino-Indian War | Indo-China War of 1962 | 20th | 20 October 1962 | 20 November 1962 | The Sino-Indian War, also known as the Indo-China War of 1962, was fought from 20 October to 20 November 1962 between India and China over border disputes between the two countries since the partition of India in 1947. Tensions between China and India were exacerbated by skirmishes along the border after the uprising in Tibet, and India’s rejection of China’s diplomatic settlements from 1960 to 1962. China invaded the disputed territory and defeated Indian troops, but foreign powers supported India, which led China to retreat from most of the invaded regions and announce a ceasefire. | Asia |
| 1921 Persian coup d’état | 3 Esfand 1299 coup d’état | 20th | 21 February 1921 | 21 February 1921 | The 1921 Persian coup d’état, known as 3 Esfand 1299 coup d’état in Iran, took place in Tehran in present-day Iran on 21 February 1921. The ruling Qajar dynasty was corrupt and inefficient and there were various levels of unrest in Tehran. The Persian Cossack Brigade, led by the Iranian officer Reza Khan, launched the coup against the Qajar shah in response to unpaid salaries. The rebels were supported by Britain in their coup, as the foreign power was concerned by the Qajar government’s rule of Persia. The coup resulted in the government’s dissolution and Khan became minister of war. | Asia |
| Al-Wadiah War | | 20th | 27 November 1969 | 6 December 1969 | Al-Wadiah War took place in al-Wadiah, Saudi Arabia, between 27 November to 6 December 1969. The war was fought between the People’s Republic of South Yemen and Saudi Arabia over territorial disputes in which each side laid claim to al-Wadiah. Tensions between the South Yemen and Saudi Arabian governments were heightened due to the former’s support of overthrowing the Gulf monarchies, and the latter’s support of South Yemeni rebels. South Yemen aimed to control al-Wadiah and seized it, but the war ended ultimately with Saudi Arabia pushing back the Yemenis and reconquering al-Wadiah. | Asia |
| Treaty of Zuhab | Treaty of Qasr-e Shirin | 17th | 17 May 1639 | 17 May 1639 | The Treaty of Zuhab, also known as the Treaty of Qasar-e Shirin, was signed on 17 May 1639 by the Safavid and Ottoman empires and was one of many treaties to solve border disputes. The Treaty of Zuhab was signed in order to end the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1623-1639 which resulted in a victory for the Ottoman Empire. The treaty’s terms agreed on territory in West Asia that was formerly under Safavid control to be split between the Ottomans and Safavids. Eastern territories remained with the Safavid Empire, but Western Georgia and Western Armenia were transferred to the Ottoman Empire. | Asia |
| Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828 | Nicholas I's Persian War | 19th | 19 July 1826 | 22 February 1828 | The Russo-Persian War of 1826-1828, also known as Nicholas I's Persian War, was fought between the Russian Empire and Persia, present-day Iran, after a previous war between the two in 1813. The Qajar shah was relying on foreign subsidies and was advised and supported by Britain to reconquer territory he had previously lost to Russia after the Treaty of Gulistan. The Qajar prince, Abbas Mirza, invaded Khanates under Russian rule, but Russia counter-invaded. The war resulted in a Russian victory with Persia handing over khanates as well as paying an indemnity and allowing Russia free trade in Persia. | Asia |
| Treaty of Akhal | Akhal-Khorasan Boundary Convention | 19th | 21 September 1881 | | The Treaty of Akhal, also known as the Akhal-Khorasan Boundary Convention, was signed on 21 September 1881 by the Qajar dynasty of Persia, present-day Iran, and Imperial Russia. It took place in Akhal, a region north of Khorasan. The treaty officially recognized the Russian Empire’s annexation of Khwarazm, which corresponds largely with present-day Turkmenistan. Imperial Russia’s policy of territorial expansion resulted in conquering regions in Central Asia, which led to the Akhal Treaty being enforced and the transfer of Persian territory to Russian control. | Asia |
| Pink’s War | | 20th | 9 March 1925 | 1 May 1925 | Pink’s War was fought between 9 March 1925 and 1 May 1925 between the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Mahsud tribe in South Waziristan, a region that corresponds with present-day Lower South Waziristan District, Upper South Waziristan District and southern Waziristan, Pakistan. The RAF acted independently from the army and navy in Pink’s war, which is named after an RAF officer. They conducted air operations against the Mahsud people in order to defend themselves against raids and attacks from the tribesmen. The Mahsud tribesmen sought peace, which ended the war. | Asia |
| First Saudi-Rashidi War | Battles over Qasim | 20th | 1903 | 1907 | The First Saudi-Rashidi War, also known as the Battles over Qasim, took place between 1903 and 1907 between Saudi loyalist forces of the new Sultanate of Nejd and the Rashidi-ruled Emirate of Ha’il. The Saudis aimed to expand their territory in the Arabian peninsula and in 1902 Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud, known in the West as Ibn Saud, had seized Riyadh and become the new emir. Saud was supported by Britain, whereas the Rashidi emirate was supported by Germany and backed by Ottoman troops. The war consisted of many battles and ended with a Saudi victory once they seized the al-Qassim region. | Asia |
| First Saudi-Hashemite War | First Nejd-Hejaz War | 20th | July 1918 | 4 July 1919 | The First Saudi-Hashemite War, also known as the First Nejd-Hejaz War, was fought between 1918 and 1919 between Ibn Saud of the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa and the Hashemites of the Kingdom of Hejaz over power in the Arabian peninsula. The conflict was triggered after Sharif Husayn of Hejaz refused Ibn Saud’s demands for negotiation after he laid claim to the Arab peninsula and declared himself king. The war began with Al-Khurma’s emir switching from Hashemite to Saudi rule, and concluded with the British issuing an ultimatum to the Saudis to stop their campaign against Hejaz, which Ibn Saud submitted to. | Asia |
| Ikhwan Revolt | | 20th | 1927 | 1930 | The Ikhwan Revolt was an uprising that took place between 1927 and 1930 and was led by the Ikhwan, a religious militia of tribespeople, who had been part of King of Saudi Arabia, Ibn Saud’s, army. As traditionalists, they revolted against his introduction of modern innovations and for sending his son to Egypt. The revolt took place in the British protectorate of Transjordan, present-day Jordan, Mandatory Iraq which was under British Administration, and the British protectorate Sheikhdom of Kuwait, present-day Kuwait. The Ikhwan surrendered to the British when they were surrounded in Kuwait in January 1930. | Asia |
| Treaties of Erzurum | | 19th | 29 July 1823 | 31 May 1847 | The Treaties of Erzurum were signed in 1823 and 1847 by the Ottoman and Persian empires to solve disputes about territorial boundaries following the victory of Persia, also referred to as Iran, in the 1821 Battle of Erzurum. The 1823 treaty of Erzurum confirmed a border between the two empires that had been established in 1639, as well as terms relating to taxes, trade, and access to holy sites. Another round of border incidents between Persia and the Ottoman Empire increased tensions again. Foreign powers tried to mediate between the two sides and a second treaty was signed in 1847. | Asia |
| Anglo-Persian War | Anglo-Iranian War | 19th | 1 November 1856 | 4 April 1857 | The Anglo-Persian War, also known as the Anglo-Iranian War, took place from 1 November 1856 to 4 April 1857 between the United Kingdom and Qajar-ruled Iran, or the state of Persia. On 25 October 1856 Iran conquered Herat in Western Afghanistan, which had been under Iran’s control until Afghanistan’s independence. The invasion also aimed to compensate for Iran’s defeat in the Russo-Persian Wars. The invasion violated the Anglo-Persian Treaty, and so Britain retaliated with war on Iran. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Paris, in which Iran withdrew from Herat. | Asia |
| Anglo-Manipur War | | 19th | 31 March 1891 | 27 April 1891 | The Anglo-Manipur War was fought from 31 March to 27 April 1891 between the British Empire and the Kingdom of Manipur when the military commander Senapati Tikendrajit began to take leadership and aimed to stop the British influence in Manipur. Britain allied with the Maharajah of Manipur, Tikendrajit’s brother, and seeing Tikendrajit’s leadership as a threat, they aimed to remove him and restore the king’s power in Manipur. Tikendrajit led a successful coup and when British demands were rejected, British India declared war, which ended with the Khongjom Battle and British victory. | Asia |
| Aden Emergency | Radfan Uprising | 20th | 1963 | 1967 | The Aden Uprising, or the Radfan Uprising, occurred in The Aden Protectorate in the present-day Republic of Yemen. The National Liberation Front (South Yemen) and the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen were rival organisations that rebelled against the British Protectorate known as The Federation of South Arabia, leading to the collapse of The Aden Protectorate and British rule. The rebel fighters held anti-British sentiment influenced by Arab nationalism. The British wanted to maintain control of Aden as an air and naval base. It was also a safeguard for accessing oil supplies. | Asia |
| Al-Wathbah Uprising | | 20th | 1948 | 1948 | The Al-Wathbah Uprising happened in January 1948 in Baghdad, triggered by secret plans between the British-installed Iraqi monarchy and Britain to renew the 1930 Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. The treaty agreed to protect the Iraqi monarchy, tie Iraq to British interests and unrestricted movement of British troops in Iraq. Along with widespread poverty, rigid class barriers and dissatisfied workers, the treaty provoked an uprising among workers, students, impoverished people, and political parties. The uprising resulted in a new government and the strengthening of the Iraqi Communist Party. | Asia |
| Second Syrian War | | 3rd BC | 260 BC | 253 BC | The Second Syrian War occurred between 260 and 253 BC in Coele, Syria, present-day Israel. Of all the Hellenistic wars, it is possibly the most badly documented. The estimated causes for the conflict were Antiochus II of the Seleucid Empire’s aiming to avenge losses in The First Syrian War and expand his empire into Syria under Ptolemy II’s control. The Seleucids allied with Macedonia, who wanted to expel Ptolemy II from the Aegean, and attacked Ptolemy’s outposts in Asia. Ptolemy lost territory while the Seleucid Empire regained territory. The war ended with Antiochus’s marriage to Ptolemy’s daughter. | Asia |
| Third Syrian War | Laodicean War | 3rd BC | 246 BC | 241 BC | The Third Syrian War, also known as the Laodicean War, was instigated following a debate over power and succession after the death of the Seleucid Empire’s leader Antiochus. The mothers of Antiochus’s sons, Laodice and Berenice Syra, each claimed that their son was his heir. Laodice’s supporters assassinated Berenice and her son, which led to Berenice’s brother and leader of Ptolemaic Egypt, Ptolemy III’s, declaration of war on Seleucus II, Laodice’s son and new heir to the Seleucid Empire. Peace was agreed when Ptolemy III was given new territories on the Northern coast of Syria. | Asia |
| Fourth Syrian War | | 3rd BC | 219 BC | 217 BC | The Fourth Syrian War was part of a series of conflicts. It happened between 219 and 217 BC, between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire aimed to regain his empire’s lost territories from previous wars and extend his empire into Syria and Egypt. Antiochus invaded and recaptured various cities before engaging Ptolemy IV in the Battle of Raphia for Egypt. The war resulted in victory for the Ptolemaic Kingdom, which maintained its control over Coele-Syria, an area in present-day Syria and Lebanon. | Asia |
| Fifth Syrian War | | 3rd BC | 202 BC | 195 BC | The Fifth Syrian War began when Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire saw an opportunity to invade the Ptolemaic Kingdom after Ptolemy IV died in 204 BC. Antiochus allied with Macedonia to conquer Ptolemaic territory in Asia Minor, and they invaded Coele-Syria, of present-day Syria and Lebanon, but halted at Egypt due to Roman intervention. Antiochus claimed victory, and a treaty agreed to Seleucid possession of Coele-Syria and Ptolemy’s marriage to Antiochus’ daughter. | Asia |
| Sixth Syrian War | | 2nd BC | 171 BC | 168 BC | The Sixth Syrian War was the last in the series of Syrian Wars between the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Relations between the two powers had declined, and the regents of Ptolemaic Egypt declared war on the Seleucid Empire to unify the state and gain political support from pro-war factions. The war resulted in the Seleucid Empire’s effective control of Egypt, but the people of Alexandria revolted. The Seleucids lost control of Egypt and invaded again until the Romans intervened and ordered the Seleucid forces to retreat from Egypt and Cyprus. | Asia |
| Seleucid–Parthian Wars | | 3rd BC | 238 BC | 129 BC | The Seleucid-Parthian Wars happened between the Seleucid Empire and Parthia of present-day Iran. The Seleucid Empire was vast, and there was unrest among Iranians who inhabited it. Bactria, an area in present-day Central Asia, and Parthia declared themselves independent states and allied to conquer the eastern Seleucid Empire. The Seleucid Empire regained territory but lost it again when Parthia continually invaded more Seleucid cities. The wars resulted in unrecoverable losses for the Seleucid Empire and the establishment of the Parthian Empire. | Asia |
| Seleucid Dynastic Wars | | 1st BC, 2nd BC | 157 BC | 63 BC | The Seleucid Dynastic Wars between 157 and 63 BC were a series of civil wars borne out of the Seleucid Empire’s succession crises and the agreement for Rome to hold a member of the Seleucid royal family hostage. The conflict took place between different branches of the Seleucid Empire’s royal household who each vied for power over the empire. The wars included the War of Antiochus VI and Tryphon, The Wars of Alexander Balas, The War of Antiochus VI and Tryphon, The War of Alexander Zabinas, The War between Grypus and Cyzicenus and The War of the Brothers, and concluded with the Seleucid Empire’s collapse. | Asia |
| Antiochene War | Roman-Syrian War | 2nd BC | 192 BC | 188 BC | The Antiochene War, also known as the Roman-Syrian War, occurred between the Seleucid Empire and the Roman Republic in present-day Greece, where the Romans were increasingly involved politically, and Asia Minor, where the Seleucid Empire had established power. The Romans did not want the threat of the Seleucids as another major power. War was triggered when the Seleucid army landed in Greece following the Aetolian League’s capture of Greek cities. The Romans forced the Seleucids back to Asia Minor and the war ended with the Treaty of Apamea. | Europe |
| Maccabean Revolt | | 2nd BC | 167 BC | 160 BC | The Maccabean Revolt between 167 to 160 BC was a rebellion in Judea of Jewish people against the rule of the Seleucid Empire, who conquered Judea from Egypt in a series of campaigns. The uprising began with guerrilla warfare, provoked by the empire’s promotion of Hellenism and ban on people practising Judaism. The Maccabees were a Jewish Army who eventually captured Jerusalem in 164 BC. The Seleucids unbanned Judaism, and the Jewish people reclaimed their temple, but the Maccabees resumed war and asked for help from Rome to secure total independence from the Seleucid empire. | Asia |
| Seleucid–Mauryan War | | 4th BC | 305 BC | 303 BC | The Seleucid-Mauryan War happened from 305 to 303 BC between the Seleucid and Maurya Empires. Chandragupta Maurya, leader of the Maurya Empire had expanded his territory to the Indus Valley of north-western India and Seleucus I Nicator, leader of the Seleucids, wanted to regain control of the territories left by Alexander the Great that were near the valley. The dispute over the Indus Valley territories incited war between the Seleucids and Mauryans that resulted in a peace treaty where the Maurya Empire gained five territories and the Seleucid Empire received 500 war elephants. | Asia |
| Second Perso-Turkic War | | 1st | Date and year unknown | 608 | The Second Perso-Turkic War came after the Persian Sassanid Empire defeated the Göktürks and Hephthalites. The Göktürks and Hephthalites seized the opportunity to invade Sassanid territory whilst the Sassanid focused on fighting Byzantium. The Turk and Hephthalite invasion led to a loss in their first battle. After reinforcements, they experienced successes until the eastern Persian forces reorganised, and the Turks and Hephthalites retreated. | Asia |
| Mithridatic Wars | | 1st BC | 89 BC | 63 BC | The Mithridiatic Wars refers to the three wars between Rome and the Kingdom of Pontus, a historical kingdom on the south coast of the Black Sea. Mithridates VI, king of Pontus, aimed to expand his domain, so he conquered Roman provinces in present-day Asia Minor and incited revolts in Greece. The Romans fought back to resist Mithridates’ territorial ambitions, and the first war ended with a Roman victory. A second war followed but ended inconclusively until the third war, where the Romans regained control of Asia Minor, including Pontus. | Asia |
| Hasmonean Civil War | | 1st BC | 67 BC | 63 BC | The Hasmonean Civil War was a dynastic succession war between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Hyrcanus was overthrown in battle by his younger brother, Aristobulus, only a few months after being crowned King of Judea. After abdicating his throne, Hyrcanus allied with the king of the Nabataeans and defeated Aristobulus’ forces. Both brothers approached Pompey, a general and statesman of the Roman Republic, for support during the war. Pompey reinstalled Hyrcanus II as a puppet king of Judea before Rome conquered Jerusalem for themselves. | Asia |
| 2011 Egyptian Revolution | 25 January Revolution | 21st | 25 January 2011 | 11 February 2011 | The 2011 Egyptian Revolution, also known as the 25 January Revolution, took place intending to overthrow President Hosni Mubarak and establish free elections and democracy. The revolts were a statement against police brutality, state-of-emergency laws, lack of political freedom, civil liberty, low wages, unemployment, inflation, and corruption under Mubarak’s regime. After weeks of marches, strikes, looting and violent clashes between protesters and the regime’s forces, the revolution resulted in Mubarak’s resignation. | Asia |
| Egyptian Revolt | | 5th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Egyptian Revolt occurred after Darius I, the Persian ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, failed in his attempt to invade Greece. Sources vary as to the reason why the revolt against Persian rule broke out; some report that it was due to the state of turmoil Asia Minor was in because of the military demands of raising an army. While other sources report that it was due to heavy taxes and the deportation of artisans. The revolt took place sometime between 487-484 BCE, but sources vary and the revolt may have broken out before or during the reign of Darius I’s heir Xerxes, who quashed the rebellion. | Asia |
| War of the Antiochene Succession | Antiochene War of Succession | 13th | 1201 | 1219 | The War of the Antiochene Succession, also known as the Antiochene War of Succession, refers to armed conflicts in Antioch, a northern Syrian crusader state, from 1201 to 1219. The war was between Bohemond IV, the second son of Bohemond III and designated heir, and Raymon-Roupen, the grandson of Bohemond III, by his first son who had died, who believed he should rule. The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia supported Raymond-Roupen and invaded Antioch, successfully instating Raymond-Roupen. But Raymond-Roupen’s rulership was unpopular, and an uprising led to Bohemond IV’s return to rule. | Asia |
| Aksumite–Persian Wars | | 6th | 570 | 578 | The Aksumite-Persian Wars were a series of wars between the Sasanian Persian Empire and the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire that occupied the Himyarite Kingdom of present-day Yemen. The conflict followed the Siege of Sana, during which the Sasanian Empire captured the Aksumite city, Sana'a, the capital of Yemen, and expelled many Aksumites. The Persian Empire reinstated King Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan, most known for ending Aksumite rule over Southern Arabia. Yazan's murder led to the Aksumites regaining power in the region before the Sasanian army re-conquered Yemen, expelling the Ethiopians again and establishing control. The Persian military general, Wahrez, was appointed governor. | Asia |
| Muslim Conquest of Persia | Arab Conquest of Iran | 7th | Date and year unknown | 654 | The Muslim Conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab Conquest of Iran, began around 633 AD and was led by the Rashidun Caliphate following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. After decades of war against the Byzantine Empire, the Sasanian Empire was exhausted. This weakness coincided with the rise of Muslim presence in Arabia. Muslims aimed to expand and conquer Persian territory, beginning with present-day Iraq but eventually lost to Sasanian counterattacks. The Muslims continued to attack, and in 642, the Rashidun Army invaded Persia, leading to the fall of the Sasanian Empire by 651. | Asia |
| Hephthalite–Sasanian War of 484 | | 5th BC | 484 BC | 484 BC | The Hephthalite-Sasanian War of 484 was a conflict between the Sasanian Empire, led by the Sasanian king, Peroz I, and the Hephthalite Empire. The Romans supported the Sasanian Empire in their efforts to stop the Hephthalite expansion in Eastern Iran, but the Sasanians were met with failure when Peroz was taken prisoner and made to hand over his son as a hostage for three years until a ransom was paid for his release. Peroz was later killed during the war whilst the Hephthalites’ continued to invade and pillage Sasanid territories. | Asia |
| Treaty of Dardanos | | 1st BC | 85 BC | 85 BC | The Treaty of Dardanos was signed in 85 BC in Dardanos, an ancient city in Anatolia, present-day Turkey, by Lucius Cornelius Sulla of the Roman Republic and Mithridates VI, King of Pontus. The treaty concluded the First Mithridatic War following Pontus’ defeat to Rome. The treaty’s terms required Mithridates to pay indemnities and surrender territory on the Greek mainland and islands. The treaty aimed to establish that Greece belonged to Rome. Greek cities that revolted during the wars were made to pay indemnities to Rome. | Asia |
| Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591 | | 6th | 572 | 591 | The Byzantine-Sasanian War of 572 to 591 between the Persian Sasanian Empire and the Roman-Byzantine Empire occurred in present-day Iraq, Turkey, Southern Europe and Syria. Growing tensions between the two Empires were caused by pro-Byzantine revolts in the Caucasus region under Persian hegemony and interferences between their circles of influence and conquests. Having played a vital role in restoring Khosrow II to the throne, the Byzantines were in a strong position in their relations with Persia. A partition of the Caucasus region was agreed upon, handing over to the Byzantines numerous cities. However, the alliance between Maurice, the Eastern Roman Emporer, and Khosrow triggered a new war 11 years later, with catastrophic results for both empires. | Asia |
| Arab Spring | | 21st | 17 December 2010 | 2012 | The Arab Spring was a series of protests and uprisings against the ruling regimes and governments. It began in December 2010 in Tunisia and spread to Libya, Egypt, Yemen, Syria, Bahrain and other regions in the Middle East and North Africa and ended two years later. Varying factors led to the Arab Spring, including human rights violations, political corruption, poverty, rising food prices and dissatisfied youth. The protesters aimed for democratic political systems, better economic prospects, and ending corruption. Some of the protests were met with violence, leading to civil wars. | Asia |
| Anastasian War | | 6th | 502 | 506 | The Anastasian War was between the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Empire. Sassanid King Kavad I needed money to pay debts, but his treasury was depleted due to famines and flooding that affected the empire’s finances. Kavad I asked the Roman Byzantines for help, but they refused, so Kavad I declared war to gain the finances he needed. The conflict occurred in present-day Turkey, where the Persians were successful in their invasions, but eventually, the Romans gained the upper hand. The war ended with a peace treaty in November 506. | Asia |
| First Perso-Turkic War | | 6th BC | 588 BC | 589 BC | The First Perso-Turkic war between the Sasanian Empire and Hephtalite principalities followed a campaign by the Sasanian Empire, allied with the Göktürks, to end the Hephthalite Empire’s control in Central Asia. It resulted in areas south of the present-day Amu-Darya River under Sasanian rule and areas north of the river to the Turks. War erupted again in 588 when the Turkic Khagan, along with his Hephthalite subjects, invaded the Sasanian territories, but the Sasanians pushed back against the invasion and took over Turkic-occupied Hephthalite territory. | Asia |
| Antigonid–Nabataean Confrontations | Nabataean Expeditions | 4th BC | 312 BC | 312 BC | The Antigonid-Nabataean Confrontations, also known as The Nabataean Expeditions in 312 BC, were three conflicts between the Greek general Antigonus I and the Arab Nabataean people. After Alexander the Great’s death, Antigonus took rule of the Levant, near the Nabataeans, by Petra, Jordan. His reasons for attacking them are unclear but are likely due to economic interests due to the Nabataean’s wealth from trade routes and taxes. Three attacks on the Nabataeans followed that were unsuccessful, and eventually, Antigonus abandoned his interest in the tribe. | Asia |
| Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422 | | 5th | 421 | 422 | The Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422 between the Eastern Roman and Sasanian empires, already on the defensive from one another, was triggered by the Sassanid king’s persecution of Christians in an attempt to gain favour with his subjects and in retaliation to earlier Christian attacks on Zoroastrian temples. The Romans declared war, and both sides attacked with sieges, occurring in present-day Turkey and Syria, Lebanon and Iraq. A peace treaty ended the war, agreeing that the empires were to tolerate one another’s religions. | Asia |
| Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 | War of the Armenian Succession | 1st | 58 | 63 | The Roman-Parthian War of 58 to 63, also known as The War of the Armenian Succession, between the Roman and Parthian empires was a conflict over the control of Armenia, a buffer state and historically contested territory between the two powers. The Parthian invasion of Armenia in 58 to install their ruler as the Armenian king affected Roman pride, and the new emperor, Nero, aimed to prove his ability by leading a campaign into Armenia. The Parthians then fought back, eventually defeating the Romans in battle. The war ended in a stalemate, and both powers agreed to rule Armenia equally. | Asia |
| Parthian War of Caracalla | | 3rd | 216 | 217 | The Parthian War of Caracalla was a Roman campaign against the Parthian Empire in the northern regions of the Parthian Empire, present-day Iraq. Roman emperor Caracalla requested to marry the new Parthian king’s daughter, using the opportunity to attack. Sources vary on whether the marriage was refused or agreed to. Caracalla’s campaign began with a massacre at the Parthian palace and continued into Parthia until defeat. The Parthians regrouped and fought the Romans until Caracalla’s successor, Macrinus, paid reparations to the Parthians to end the war. | Asia |
| Sasanian Civil War of 589–591 | | 6th | 589 | 591 | The Sasanian Civil War of 589-591 was an uprising against the Sassanid King Hormizd IV. The conflict grew out of the king’s hostile relationship and distrust of the elite, many of whom he killed, along with his rejection of the Zoroastrian priesthood’s requests to persecute Christians and a decrease in payments to the military. A disgruntled general, Bahram Chobin, led the revolt, which loyalists tried to suppress. Following the murder of Hormizd, his son Khosrow II, succeeded the throne. The new king allied with the Byzantines, and the war ended with Bahram’s defeat in 591. | Asia |
| Siege of Jerusalem | | 6th BC | 597 BC | 597 BC | The Siege of Jerusalem in 597 BC was a campaign led by the Neo-Babylonian Empire into Jerusalem, the capital of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar II of the Babylonians besieged Jerusalem to reinstate his power over Judah that had previously held allegiance to him, but had stopped paying tribute, switched to being pro-Egypt and had revolted against Babylonian rule. In 587 BC the new vassal king of Judah, Zedekiah, revolted against the Babylonians and again the revolt was crushed with a second siege on Jerusalem in 588 BCE that ended with the destruction of the city in 586 BCE. | Asia |
| Babylonian–Assyrian War of 1235 BC | | 13th BC | 1235 BC | 1235 BC | The Babylonian-Assyrian War of 1235 BCE was fought between Babylonia and Assyria in a period of rising tensions in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq, Syria and Lebanon, where both states were based. The Assyrian king, Tukulti-Ninurta stated that he declared war on Babylonia due to a pre-emptive attack from them. Another reason is believed to have been the fact that the King of Babylonia, Kaštiliašu, had given a royal land grant to a fugitive from an Assyrian vassal state. Tukulti-Ninurta invaded Babylonia, present-day Iraq and Syria, and destroyed the city where he claimed victory. | Asia |
| Venetian Crusade | | 12th | 1122 | 1124 | The Venetian Crusade from 1122 to 1124 refers to the Republic of Venice’s campaign to the Holy Land, Jerusalem. The Crusader King of Jerusalem requested help after Frank crusaders experienced losses in battle and Venice aimed to help. The Venetians had already attacked Byzantine Corfu to avenge their emperor before reaching present-day Israel and fighting the Egyptians. Venetian and Frank crusaders together besieged Tyre, in present-day Lebanon, which resulted in the crusader’s acquisition of a third of Tyre’s territory and trading concessions. | Asia |
| Fourth Crusade | | 13th | 1202 | 1204 | The Fourth Crusade, 1202 to 1204, was called by Pope Innocent III to defeat the Ayyubid Sultanate and capture Jerusalem under Muslim control. Instead, it resulted in a war on Constantinople, present-day Istanbul, Turkey. The Byzantine prince Alexius IV offered to help the crusaders if they helped topple the emperor of Constantinople. After they did so, the prince did not hold up his end of the agreement. The Crusaders declared war and sacked the city of Constantinople. The Crusaders took control and elected Baldwin of Flanders as emperor and a Venetian patriarch. | Asia |
| Kargil War | Operation Vijay | 20th | 1999 | 1999 | The Kargil War, also known as Operation Vijay in India, began in Kargil, in an area of the disputed Kashmir region, present-day Ladakh, India. India and Pakistan had previously fought in the region at the Line of Control that separates their countries. Pakistan had disguised their army as Kashmiri militants and entered the Indian side of the Line of Control to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh. After realising, India fought to push the Pakistani army out of their land. The conflict ended with an agreement in July 1999 and the withdrawal of Pakistani troops. | Asia |
| Greco-Turkish War | | 20th | 1919 | 1922 | The Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922 was between Greece and the Turkish National Movement after World War I had led to the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. Anatolia was promised to Greece in the Treaty of Sèvres, and they had their claims to the territory because it had been in Ancient Greece and the Byzantine Empires. The Greeks invaded Smyrna, present-day Izmir, Turkey and took control of Anatolian cities, where they fought against Turkish forces in the Battle of the Sakarya in 1921. The Greeks were defeated, and Turkish forces recaptured Smyrna. | Asia |
| Kurdistan Region–PKK Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1983 | Ongoing | The Kurdistan Region-PKK Conflict is an ongoing conflict in Iraqi Kurdistan between the Pesherga soldiers of the ruling KRG, Kurdistan Regional Government, and the KDP, Kurdistan Democratic Party against the PKK, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party. The conflict began in 1983 after a breakdown in relations between the parties. The PKK wanted more territorial control to gain more influence in the Kurdistan region, and so they invaded villages ruled by the KRG. The KRG carried out military action as they felt the PKK had undermined their sovereignty and become oppressive to residents. | Asia |
| Cadusian Campaign of Artaxerxes II | | 4th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Cadusian Campaign of Artaxerxes II is said to have occurred when King Artaxerxes II of Persia of the Achaemenid Empire campaigned against the Cadusii, an ancient Iranian tribe. However, the origins of the campaign are not historically certified. The conflict took place in Media Atropatene of present-day Northern Iran. King Artaxerxes’s reason for invading the region was likely due to revolts and the tribe’s refusal to pay tribute to the king. One of the Persian officers tricked the Cadusii’s rival chiefs into thinking each one had offered peace, which successfully ended the campaign. | Asia |
| Third Mithridatic War | | 1st BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Third Mithridatic War was between King Mithridates of the Pontus Kingdom and the Romans. There is debate on whether the conflict began in 74 or 73 BC. Mithridates was preparing for war against Rome following two previous wars. The third war was triggered when Bithynia’s king died, and Rome laid claim to the kingdom, corresponding to present-day northern Turkey. Mithridates advanced into Bithynia, and the two powers went to war with Rome, aiming to invade Pontus. The war ended with the fall of the Pontus Kingdom and the Seleucid Empire. | Asia |
| Galatian War | | 2nd BC | 189 BC | 189 BC | The Galatian War of 189 BC was between the Galatian Gauls and the Roman Republic allied with Pergamum. The war occurred in Galatia, present-day Turkey, where the Gallic tribes were based. The Romans consul, Gnaeus Manilus Vulso, acted without the Roman Senate’s consent and declared war on the Galatians to avenge them for supplying troops to the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War. Roman troops, allied with the Pergamums, attacked and defeated the Galatians. The Galatians fled, but many were sold into slavery. | Asia |
| Julian's Persian War | Perso-Roman War of 363 | 4th | 363 | 363 | Julian’s Persian War, or the Perso-Roman War of 363, was a campaign led by Emperor Julian of the Roman Empire against the Sasanian Empire. Julian aimed to capture Ctesiphon, southeast of present-day Baghdad. His reasons for doing so are disputed by historians. One theory is that he wanted to increase his fame and avenge the Persian invasions of Roman provinces. Another is his aim to prove his support from the Roman gods by a victory over the Christian Sassanians. The war resulted in the Romans being forced to retreat and a peace treaty that ceded land to the Persians. | Asia |
| Nizari–Seljuk Conflicts | | 11th, 12th | 1090 | 1194 | The Nizari-Seljuk Conflicts from 1090 to 1194 AD were between the Nizari Ismailis and the Seljuk Empire that ruled Persia. The Nizari Ismailis, a sect of Shi’a Muslim, had taken control of Alamut in present-day Iran and expanded into nearby towns by force or conversion. The Nizaris’ actions were triggered by the Sunni Muslim Seljuks’ oppression of Shi’a Muslims. The Seljuks, threatened by the Nizari’s growth, besieged Alamut. Conflict between the two sides continued as the Nizaris continued their attempts to expand into Seljuk territory, but the ongoing effects of war led to a stalemate. | Asia |
| Qays–Yaman War | War of the Watermelon | 8th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Qays-Yaman War, or the War of the Watermelon, was fought between the Northern Mudhar and Southern Yaman tribal confederations formed in Palestine and Transjordan, present-day Jordan. The two confederations’ disputes often resulted in the ruling Abbasid Caliphate siding with the Yamani. War broke out when a northern tribesman stole marrow and watermelons from a southern tribesman. The Abbasid Caliph intervened, but in 796, conflict began again with the Mudhars against the Yamani and the Abbasids, who responded with a large army that crushed the revolt. | Asia |
| Jewish Revolt Against Constantius Gallus | | 4th | 351 | 352 | The Jewish Revolt Against Constantius Gallus happened from 351 to 352 in the Roman province of Syria Palaestina consisting of Roman Judea and Galilee, present-day Israel and Gaza. The war was a Jewish rebellion against Roman rule where Christians persecuted Jews and attacked synagogues and temples. When Constantius Gallus took the position of Caesar of the East, the Jews revolted against their persecution under Roman rule. The Romans destroyed cities that the rebels had captured and quashed the revolts, resulting in a permanent garrison occupying Galilee in present-day Israel. | Asia |
| Antony's Parthian War | Roman-Parthian War of 40-33 BC | 1st BC | 40 BC | 33 BC | Antony’s Parthian War, also known as the Roman-Parthian War of 40-33 BC, was a conflict between the Roman Republic led by Mark Antony and the Parthian Empire. Antony aimed to carry out his predecessor, Julius Caesar’s wishes to avenge the Roman defeat in the Battle of Carrhae with an invasion of Parthia. Before he did so, the Parthians and their allies captured Roman-ruled Syria and Judea, present-day Israel, and advanced further into Roman territory until defeated. The Romans recaptured Judea and attacked the Parthians in present-day north-western Iran, but in the end, they retreated. | Asia |
| Mari–Ebla War | | 25th BC, 24th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Mari-Ebla War was fought around 2400 to 2300 BC between the Second Mari Kingdom and the surrounding First Kingdom of Ebla based in Northern Mesopotamia, a region that corresponds to present-day Syria. The war was triggered when Mari invaded and defeated Nagar, an ally of Ebla, resulting in Ebla’s trade routes being blocked. Ebla responded with a military campaign and allied with Nagar and Kish, a nearby town, to defeat Mari in the Battle of Terqa. After their defeat Mari sought vengeance and destroyed the First Kingdom of Ebla. | Asia |
| Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440 | | 5th | 440 | 440 | The Byzantine-Sasanian War of 440 was between the Roman-Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Empire. The Sassanids declared war following the Roman Emperor, Theodosius II’s, refusal to continue payments to them and agreed to protect the Caucasus region, which the Sassanids saw as Rome’s subordination to them. The Romans offered peace to the Sassanids as they wanted to end the war quickly to focus on an invasion in their southern provinces. They agreed to make payments again and that neither side would build forts in Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq. | Asia |
| Medo-Babylonian Conquest of the Assyrian Empire | | 7th BC | 626 BC | 609 BC | The Medo-Babylonian Conquest of the Assyrian Empire from 626 to 609 BC refers to the Neo-Babylonian Empire and Median Empire’s invasion of the Assyrian Empire. Babylonia was a vassal kingdom of the Assyrian Empire, until a Babylonian uprising regained the kingdom’s independence. The Assyrians attempted to recapture Babylonia, but due to internal revolts they abandoned their campaign. The Babylonians continued to expand their command of territory. The Medes invaded Assyria in 615 BC, and the Babylonians allied with them, which resulted in the destruction of the Assyrian Empire. | Asia |
| Treaty of Rhandeia | | 1st | 63 | 63 | The Treaty of Rhandeia occurred in 63 between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire in Rehandeia (present-day Turkey). The treaty aimed to secure the lasting stability of candidates for the Armenian throne. The Roman general, Granaeus Domitius Corbulo, and the Parthian king’s brother, Tiridates, signed. The treaty agreed that a Parthian prince of the Arascid dynasty would be installed on the throne but be nominated by Rome, making them a vassal king. The treaty concluded the Roman-Parthian War of 58-63 and lasted several decades. | Asia |
| Urartu–Assyria War | | 8th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Urartu-Assyria War began around 714 BC between the Kingdom of Urartu and the Neo-Assyrian Empire when King Sargon II of Assyria invaded Urartu. Urartu had been perceived as an increasing threat to the Assyrians due to the kingdom’s territorial conquests in present-day Armenian highlands. The Assyrians advanced into Urartu, but after the death of Sargon II, Urartu forced the Assyrians back and reconquered territory. Urartu ultimately suffered defeat, resulting in Urartu becoming an Assyrian client state. | Asia |
| Mahsa Amini Protests | | 21st | 16 September 2022 | Ongoing | The Mahsa Amini Protests refer to the ongoing nationwide uprising in Iran triggered by the death of Mahsa Amini, a Kurdish-Iranian woman who died in police custody. Amini was arrested for violating Iran’s mandatory hijab law. The protests began in September 2022 and grew into a national revolt that aimed to benefit the rights of women and overthrow the theocratic rule of the Islamic Republic. Pro-government demonstrations have taken place, calling for the anti-government protesters to be executed. Many protesters have been tortured and killed. | Asia |
| Israelite–Aramean War | | 9th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Israelite-Aramean War was between the Israelites and the Aramean and Amorite people, and occurred around 874 BC. The Israelites aimed to capture the Golan Heights to end the Aramean military offensives at Jerusalem coming from the region. They hoped to capture the Amorite area of Bashan, a strategic land in present-day Syria. The Israelites claimed victory against the Amorites and continued into Aram to defeat the Arameans in conflict. The war resulted in the Israelites successfully taking over the Golan Heights. | Asia |
| Liberation War | Bangladesh War of Independence | 20th | 26 March 1971 | 16 December 1971 | The Liberation War, or the Bangladesh War of Independence, occurred in East Pakistan, present-day Bangladesh. The suppression of Bengali culture and economic disparity between East and West Pakistan led to political discontent and nationalism in East Pakistan. West Pakistan sought to restore authority and began the Bangladesh genocide on 25th March 1971, which triggered the war. The Bengalis wanted an independent state and formed a guerrilla resistance movement supported by India. The war ended on 16th December 1971 and led to the establishment of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. | Asia |
| Siege of Tyre | | 4th BC | 332 BC | 332 BC | The Siege of Tyre, in 332 BC, was led by Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon as part of his Persian campaigns. Tyre, Phoenicia, of present-day Lebanon, refused Alexander’s wishes to sacrifice the Greek god Heracles in Tyre and perceived it as a ploy to occupy their city. Alexander reason declared war, arguing that he needed to secure Tyre to prevent a threat from behind in his campaign into Egypt. Alexander was defeated by Tyre’s strong defence until a naval campaign eventually led to the Macedonians entering the city and claiming victory. | Asia |
| Sennacherib's Campaign in the Levant | | 8th BC | 701 BC | 701 BC | Sennacherib’s Campaign in the Levant was the Neo-Assyrian Empire’s military campaign to reassert control in the region after a rebellion in 705 BC where many small states abandoned their allegiance to Assyria. Senncherib aimed to regain allegiance by force, and some states resubmitted and became vassal kingdoms. The Assyrians hoped to regain Judah with sieges in Azekah and Lachish near Jerusalem and cutting supply lines. There are conflicting outcomes of the campaign. The Assyrian source states that Judah surrendered, and the Biblical version states an Assyrian withdrawal. | Asia |
| Afghan–Sikh Wars | | 18th, 19th | 1748 | 1849 | The Afghan-Sikh Wars were a series of conflicts between the Durrani Empire and the Sikh Empire, primarily in the Punjab region. A year after the Afghan Durrani Empire announced its independence from Persia, the empire’s founder, Ahmad Shah Durrani, began military action to invade the territory. The Sikh Confederacy formed a guerrilla army, Dal Khalsa, to attack Afghan soldiers. The many campaigns, battles and skirmishes led to the consolidation and rise of the Sikh Empire. The result of the last war and whether it resulted in a Sikh or Afghan victory is disputed amongst historians. | Asia |
| Cyprus Crisis of 1967 | | 20th | 1967 | 1967 | The Cyprus Crisis of 1967 stemmed from ongoing inter-communal violence between Turkish and Greek Cypriots in the newly established Republic of Cyprus. The two groups had different aims for Cyprus. The Greeks wanted Enosis, union with Greece, and the Turkish Cypriots had hoped for union with Turkey but now wanted Takism, a partitioned Cyprus. Clashes broke out between Turkish and Greek Cypriots from July to August 1967 and between the Greek Cypriot police and Turkish Cypriots in November. International intervention helped mediate the agreement for Greek and Turkish troops to withdraw. | Asia |
| Cyprus Crisis of 1963-1964 | | 20th | 1963 | 1964 | The Cyprus Crisis of 1963-1964 stemmed from disputes between the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots after the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus. Tensions rose in particular due to constitutional amendments that mostly favoured Greek Cypriots. The civil war began in December 1963 on what is known as Bloody Christmas, and the conflict between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots ensued into the new year. Troops from Greece and Turkey became involved, along with failed interventions by international powers. The violence continued and escalated in the Crisis of 1967. | Asia |
| Smyrniote Crusades | | 14th | 1343 | 1351 | The Smyrinote Crusades from 1343 to 1351 targeted Smyrna, present-day İzmir, Turkey, where Pope Clement VI enlisted Venetian crusaders to defend Christian shipping from Turkish piracy in the Aegean Sea. The crusaders led a military expedition against Umur Bey’s Emirate of Aydin, an Anatolian Beylik controlling Smyrna’s ports. The Crusaders thought they had succeeded by 1345, but a surprise attack from Umur Bey led to a second expedition that secured the Christian area of Smyrna. Sieges continued in Smyrna as negotiations between the Christians and Turks continued until 1351. | Asia |
| Muslim Conquest of Transoxiana | | 7th, 8th | 673 | 751 | The Muslim Conquest of Transoxiana refers to Khurasan’s governor and the Umayyads aim to conquest Transoxania, corresponding with present-day Uzbekistan and parts of Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan. In the 650s, the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates raided Transoxiana, a wealthy region, for booty and tributes and attempted an advance. The Arab forces seized towns in the conquest, but after years of wars, the troops disobeyed their leader and killed him and his family, which stopped Arab invasions of Central Asia for several years. | Asia |
| Mongol Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire | | 13th | 1219 | 1221 | The Mongol Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire in present-day Afghanistan and Iran began in 1219. The Mongol and Khwarazmian Empires were expanding their rule, but the Khwarazmian Shah was apprehensive about the Mongol Empire’s growth. Mongol merchants were killed, and their caravan of goods seized by a Kwarazmian governor who thought it was espionage against Khwaramia. The Shah then killed a Muslim ambassador, which triggered Genghis Khan, the Mongol leader, to conquer Khwaramia. The Mongols invaded and destroyed the Khwarazmian Empire in the war that ended in 1221. | Asia |
| Mongol Campaign against the Nizaris | | 13th | 1253 | 1256 | The Mongol Campaign against the Nizaris began in 1253, ordered by Great Khan Möngke of the Mongol Empire, who aimed to expand the empire and create a new khanate. Tensions had risen due to the Mongols’ previous invasions of territories under Nizari rule. Sunni Muslims in the Mongol court and Mongol commanders’ complaints and warnings about the Nizaris fuelled the Mongol campaign into the Nizari state, part of present-day Iran, Iraq and Syria. By 1256, the Mongols had invaded the Nizari heartland of Alamut and massacred many Nizari Ismailis. | Asia |
| Mongol Invasion of India | | 13th, 14th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Mongol Invasions of India refer to the Mongol Empire’s several campaigns into India that began after the Mongol leader, Genghis Khan’s, conquered the Khwarazmian Empire and pursued the Khwarazmian leader Jalal ad-Din into India, where he had fled. The invasions in India resulted in Mongol occupations of present-day Pakistan, Punjab and Kashmir, becoming a vassal state of the Mongol Empire. The Delhi Sultanate fought against the Mongols, who advanced into Delhi’s outskirts, and the Sultanate successfully retained control of inner India. | Asia |
| Kurukshetra War | Mahabharata War | 11th BC or 14th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Kurukshetra War, also known as the Mahabharata War, was a dynastic succession war over the throne of Hastinapura. The conflict occurred in Kurukshetra over 18 days, during which two rival families of the Kurus, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, believed they should rule the kingdom. They fought against each other for the throne. The event was written about in the Hindu epic poem Mahabharata, but sources vary as to the date that the war happened as either c.1000 BCE or c. 3102 BCE. The Pandavas won the war, and Yudhishthira was crowned king of Hastinapura. | Asia |
| Achaemenid Conquest of the Indus Valley | | 6th BC | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Achaemenid Conquest of the Indus Valley refers to the Achaemenid Empire invading the Indus Valley, a region corresponding to present-day Pakistan. Cyrus the Great, founded the Achaemenid Empire and wanted to expand their territory, so he aimed to seize North-western India. This mission began around 535 BC, when Cyrus conquered regions west of the Indus River to increase his rulership. A second era of conquest occurred in 518 BC by Cyrus’ successor Darius the Great, who wanted to secure his dynasty. He continued to conquer land up to the Jhelum River in present-day Azad Kashmir. | Asia |
| Avanti-Magadhan Wars | | 5th BC, 6th BC | 510 BC | 400 BC | The Avanti-Magadhan Wars happened between 510 and 400 BC, where the Magadha and Avanti mahajanapadas aimed to conquer North India. Previously Magadha and Avanti had been in tension where they had come into conflict by invading each other’s territories. The death of the Magadhan leader, Ajatashatru, resulted in the weakening of their empire and the increase of threat of an invasion from the Avantis. The Magadha people overthrew their rulers before the new leader, Shishunaga, defeated the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. | Asia |
| Magadha-Vajji War | | 5th BC | 484 BC | 468 BC | The Magadha-Vajji War between 484 and 468 BC was between Magadha and the Vajjika League, ruled by the Licchavikas and based close to Magadhan territory. Increasing tensions between the two powers for reasons relating to succession and conflicting politics and trade led to the Magaha leader, Ajatashatru’s declaration of war on Vajjika. The conflict occurred in present-day Bihar, India and the Magadha tricked the Vajjis to break their unity before bringing in military forces. After a decade of fighting, the Vajjika League were defeated by the Magadha. | Asia |
| Conquest of the Nanda Empire | | 4th BC | 323 BC | 321 BC | The Conquest of the Nanda Empire occurred when Chandragupta Maurya led a force to conquer the Nanda Empire based in Northern India. Details of Chadragupta’s campaign into the Nanda capital of Pataliputra vary between accounts written after the war. The conquest was also fictionalised in Mudrarakshasa. Chadragupta decided to invade the Nanda Empire after Alexander the Great abandoned his campaign in the region in 324 BC. Chadragupta destroyed his opponents in battle and ended the Nanda dynasty in order to start building the Mauryan Empire. | Asia |
| Treaty of Aleppo | | 14th | 1323 | 1323 | The Treaty of Aleppo of 1323 was a peace treaty that followed the Mongol Il-Khanate’s repeated and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to invade Syria, resulting in the Mongols retreating to Persia. The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, was defeated, and the Il-Khanate converted to Islam, leading to the treaty taking place. The Mongol Il-Khanate of Persia and the Mamluks of Egypt, under Abu Sa’id’s rule, signed the treaty that agreed for peace. | Asia |
| First Kashmir War | Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948 | 20th | 22 October 1947 | 5 January 1949 | The First Kashmir War, also known as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948, was fought between two newly independent states, India and Pakistan, over the rule of Jammu and Kashmir, that had refrained from joining either side. Pakistan initiated warfare to seize control of Kashmir in order to prevent them from joining India. Jammu and Kashmir State Forces and militias fought back until Indian troops joined at Srinagar, the capital city of Jammu and Kashmir. The United Nations announced a ceasefire on 1 January 1949, but the recommendation to hold a referendum in the state did not take place. | Asia |
| Adana Massacre | | 20th | 1909 | 1909 | The Adana Massacre of April 1909 was an anti-Armenian pogrom in the Ottoman Empire in the Adana province, which corresponds with present-day Çukurova, Turkey. It refers to the Ottoman Muslims’ massacre of Armenian Christians and Assyrians, instigated by local officials, intellectuals, and Islamic clerics. The Armenian people had been hoping for equal status. However, the rise of Turkish nationalism with Sultan Abdul Hamid II back ruling the Ottoman Empire and rumours of an Armenian insurrection, along with Armenian wealth, led to a massacre instead. | Asia |
| Kashmir Insurgency | | 20th, 21st | 13 July 1989 | Ongoing | The Kashmir Insurgency is ongoing and began on 13 July 1989 in resistance to India’s administration of Jammu and Kashmir. In 1947, the region was disputed between India and Pakistan and the initial dissatisfaction with Indian rule, which, along with a desire for local autonomy and Pakistani involvement, contributed to the insurgency. In 1987 a disputed election in Jammu and Kashmir resulted in some members of the state’s Muslim parties forming insurgent groups, and a year later, demonstrations and strikes against the Indian government gave rise to the insurgency’s beginnings. | Asia |
| Judean Civil War | | 1st BC | 93 BC | 87 BC | The Judean Civil War from 93 to 87 BC was a war in Judea, present-day Israel, between the King of Judea, Alexander Jannaeus, and the Pharisees, a social movement and political party. A massacre of Jewish crowds when the king did not perform a religious ceremony properly and the offended people threw citrons at him is said to have triggered the conflict. The rebels were supported at times by Demetrius II Eucaerus and Seleucid forces. The civil war continued between the rebels and Alexander until the king claimed victory. | Asia |
| Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 | | 20th | 3 December 1971 | 16 December 1971 | The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 occurred in December 1971 between India and Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan, present-day Bangladesh. War was triggered when Pakistan hit Indian air stations with aerial strikes pre-emptively as they thought that the Indian military would help Bangladeshi rebels. When India declared war on Pakistan, they hoped to emerge as a superpower and saw Pakistan as a threat. India sided with the Bengali forces, who wanted independence from Pakistan. Facts of the war vary between each side and ended with India’s victory. | Asia |
| Revolt of Tyre | | 10th | 996 | 998 | The Revolt of Tyre from 996 to May 998 occurred in Tyre, a city in present-day Lebanon. The revolt was an uprising by the Tyre people and led by a mariner, ‘Allaqa, against the Fatimid government. It started with the Tyre people killing Fatimid representatives, and in response, the Fatimid caliph’s army and navy reasserted control over the city and blockaded Tyre for two years. ‘Allaqa asked the Byzantine Empire for help, but the naval forces sent were defeated by the Fatimid navy. The revolt ended with the fall of Tyre, where rebels, with Byzantine captives, were executed. | Asia |
| First Anglo-Sikh War | | 19th | 11 December 1845 | 9 March 1846 | The First Anglo-Sikh War from 11 December 1845 to 9 March 1846 took place in Mudki, in the Punjab, between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company, whose territories neighboured one another in the Punjab. After the death of the Sikh leader, the British strengthened their forces on the border, and some British saw the Sikhs as a threat to their rule of India. The Sikh army invaded British territory after growing tension between the two powers. After battles, the British defeated the Sikh empire, taking partial control of their territory. | Asia |
| Eswatini Protests | Eswatini Massacre | 21st | 20 June 2021 | Ongoing | The Eswatini Protests, also known as the Eswatini Massacre, began in the Kingdom of Eswatini, one of the world’s twelve remaining absolute monarchies. The protests started when a student, Thabani Nkomonye, was found dead with his eyes gouged out. This crime was subsequently confirmed to have happened at the hands of the police. Protests became pro-democracy in nature and 80 peaceful protesters were killed by the authorities. Demonstrations continued into 2022 and Thulani Maseko, an activist, was killed in his home in January 2023. Protests are still ongoing. | Africa |
| Guinea-Bissau War of Independence | Bissau-Guinean War of Independence | 20th | 23 January 1963 | 10 September 1974 | The Guinea-Bissau War of Independence, also known as the Bissau-Guinean War of Independence, was a conflict that brought about the end of Portuguese colonial rule in Guinea-Bissau. PAIGC, primarily led by Amilcar Lopes Cabral, and later assassinated by his own party, started their insurgency in January 1963 with the formation of adequate guerrilla units to take on the Portuguese army. The war lasted more than ten years until 1974, when Portugal formally withdrew from Guinea-Bissau. | Africa |
| Guinea-Bissau Civil War | | 20th | 7 June 1998 | 10 May 1999 | The Guinea-Bissau Civil War was a conflict that took place when João Bernardo Vieira dismissed Ansumane Mané, then the military chief of staff. Mané launched a revolt against Vieira’s government soon after, which evolved into a full-scale rebellion with interventions from France, Guinea, Nigeria and Senegal. Thousands died and fighting continued until Vieira was ousted in 1999. | Africa |
| 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état | | 21st | 12 April 2012 | 13 April 2012 | The 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état occurred in the early hours of 13 April 2012. The soldiers intended to prevent the election of Carlos Gomes Junior, who wanted to implement security reforms which would inhibit the drug trafficking business which had grown in Guinea-Bissau in the decades after independence. In May, Manuel Serifo Nhamadjo, who had come third in the election, was named interim president and the democratic process was stalled until the following year. | Africa |
| Disaster of Bolor | | 19th | 1878 | | The Disaster of Bolor was a conflict between Djola warriors and Portuguese soldiers in what is now Guinea-Bissau. This occurred when a force of 100 Portuguese soldiers were sent to the mouth of the river Cacheu on a punitive mission. Djola warriors had attacked a Portuguese outpost and cut down the mast from which a Portuguese flag flew. On this occasion, the soldiers were met by Djola warriors armed with poison-tipped arrows and lost 50 soldiers and other auxiliaries. This incident led the authorities at Lisbon to focus on Guinea and its separation from Cape Verde in 1879. | Africa |
| Pidjiguiti Massacre | Pidjiguiti Strike | 20th | 3 August 1959 | 3 August 1959 | The Pidjiguiti Massacre, also known as the Pidjiguiti Strike, was a conflict that took place at the Port of Bissau in what is now Guinea-Bissau. Dock workers were among the most exploited in the Portuguese colony and went on strike. The Portuguese authorities responded with violence, killing 50 protesters, and injuring more. The strike and ensuing massacre marked an important moment in the fight for independence. From this point, PAIGC, led by Amilcar Lopes Cabral, resolved to end the colonial rule using whatever means necessary and to abandon their campaign of nonviolence. | Africa |
| 1968 Mauritian Riots | | 20th | 22 January 1968 | 22 January 1968 | The 1968 Mauritian Riots were a conflict between the largely Christian Creole population of Mauritius and Indo-Mauritian Muslims. Riots took place in the Port Louis neighbourhoods of Cité Martial and Plaine Verte and lasted ten days. The cause of the riots were concerns over the country’s independence, which took place just after, and upcoming differences in political dispensation. There were also underlying gang-related issues surrounding the violence. | Africa |
| Uba riots at Union Flacq | Mauritian riots of 1937 | 20th | August 1937 | 13 August 1937 | The Uba Riots at Union Flacq, also known as the Mauritian riots of 1937, was a labour unrest that threatened the Colonial State in Mauritius at the time. A few hundred labourers and sugar cane growers, tired of their low wages, marched on the Union Factory in August. They overturned trucks loaded with canes, cut telephone lines, and burned sugarcane fields. They were met by armed guards and four men died. This event impacted the labour party in Mauritius, formed a year earlier, and meant that they became victims of the British Colonial State, the leaders of the party were exiled or arrested. | Africa |
| First Ivorian Civil War | | 21st | 19 September 2002 | 4 March 2007 | The First Ivorian Civil War was a conflict in the Ivory Coast between the central government of the Ivory Coast and the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d’Ivoire. The government was supported by France and the United States while the insurgents, led by Guillaume Soro, received backing from Russia, Bulgaria and Burkina Faso. The conflict reflected tensions between different religious groups, Muslims in the north and Christians in the south. It was further aggravated by an influx of immigrants from Burkina Faso. Over three thousand people died in the conflict. | Africa |
| Ouagadougou Peace Agreement | | 21st | 4 March 2007 | | The Ouagadougou Peace Agreement was a peace treaty which sought to end the First Ivorian Civil War and was signed by Laurent Gbagbo, the President of the Ivory Coast and Guillaume Kigbafori Soro, the Secretary-General of the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d’Ivoire. It was signed with Blaise Compaoré, the President of Burkina Faso, as a facilitator. The agreement set out the importance of both parties working together to consolidate peace and to promote a national reconciliation. | Africa |
| French–Ivorian Clashes | | 21st | November 2004 | November 2004 | The 2004 French-Ivorian Clashes were a series of conflicts in the Ivory Coast between the French military and the Ivory Coast. Ivorian jets killed nine French peacekeepers when attacking the rebel-held northern part of the country. The French retaliated and wiped out the entirety of the Ivory Coast’s small air force. Following this, angry armed mobs rioted on the streets of main cities, threatening, and wounding European residents and tourists. This was encouraged by the government of the Ivory Coast, which urged residents to avenge the country from their former colonists. | Africa |
| Second Ivorian Civil War | | 21st | 28 November 2010 | 11 April 2011 | The Second Ivorian Civil War was a conflict in the Ivory Coast between the military, led by President Laurent Gbagbo, and the Ivorian Popular Front, led by Alassane Ouattara. France had a military presence in the country and decided to support Ouattara. The conflict started because of the disputed result of the election in which Ouattara was declared the winner. The war ended when Ouattara’s forces captured Gbagbo and Ouattara was sworn in as president. | Africa |
| Akapless Revolt | Akapless Uprising | 19th | 1852 | 1852 | The Akapless Revolt, also known as the Akapless Uprising, was a conflict between the French colonists and the Akapless people in the south of what is now the Ivory Coast. The Akapless people, due to their opposition to French accumulation of territories and taxation, rebelled. In retaliation, the French led by Captain Faidherbe brutally suppressed the rebellion and, in doing so, built the forts of Dabou and Grand-Bassam. | Africa |
| Franco-Baoulé War | | 19th, 20th | 1891 | 1911 | The Franco-Baoulé War was a conflict between the Baoulé people and French colonists in what is present-day Ivory Coast. The resistance of the Baoulé hindered French occupation of the central region of the Ivory Coast for almost twenty years. The Baoulé had amassed tens of thousands of guns due to their trade with African and European businessmen in Grand Lahou, Jacqueville and Grand Bassam. These guns were taken between September 1909 and April 1915, when the war was officially over. There is no estimation for the number of dead. | Africa |
| Abbé War | Revolt of the Abbé | 20th | January 1910 | | The Abbé War, also known as the Revolt of the Abbé, was a conflict between French colonial settlers and the Abbé, an Akan people primarily residing in the Ivory Coast. The conflict erupted when the Abbés, tired of victimisation and forced labour imposed by French settlers, revolted in January 1910 by causing damage to various parts of a railway track which cut across their territories. The revolt lasted three months and was quashed by French colonial infantry officer Noguès and his troops. | Africa |
| Agadir Crisis | Second Moroccan Crisis | 20th | April 1911 | November 1911 | The Agadir Crisis, also known as the Agadir Incident, the Second Moroccan Crisis or the Panther Incident, was a conflict between the Germans and the French in Morocco. The Germans sent a gunboat named Panther to Agadir on the pretext of suppressing a native uprising, which in reality was to intimidate the French. The crisis caused panic and international concern that a war might break out. This subsided in November when the Franco-German accord was signed. | Africa |
| Tripolitanian War | Yusuf's Rebellion | 18th | 1790 | 1795 | The Tripolitanian Civil War, also known as Yusuf’s Rebellion, was a war of succession in Tripolitania, present-day Libya. Tensions escalated between leading members of the Karamanli dynasty in July 1790, when an Officer’s eldest son, Hasan, was murdered by his youngest brother Yusuf in their mother’s quarters. The outraged inhabitants of Tripoli rose up against Yusuf and his supporters, who fled to Manshiyya before they could consolidate their power. His brother Ahmad came to power, but in 1791, Yusuf besieged Tripoli. This left a moment of instability which provided Ali Burghul, an adventurer from Algiers, an opportunity to capture Tripoli in 1793. | Africa |
| Ma al-’Aynayn Holy War | Ma al-’Aynayn’s Anti-Colonial Insurgency | 20th | 1904 | 1910 | The Ma al-’Aynayn Holy War, also known as Ma al-’Aynayn’s Anti-Colonial Insurgency and the Ma al-’Aynayn Jihad, was a war fought by Mohamed Mustafa Ma al-’Aynayn, a Sahrawi religious and political leader, against French and Spanish colonisation in Morocco. In 1904, Ma al-’Aynayn proclaimed a Jihad against the colonisers and assembled a large coalition of tribes to fight them. He was defeated by French General Moinier and died at Tiznit in October 1910. | Africa |
| Berber Revolt | Great Berber Revolt of 739-743 | 8th | 739 | 743 | The Berber Revolt, also known as the Great Berber Revolt of 739-743, was a major rebellion by the Berbers against Arab rule in Tangier. The underlying causes of the revolt were the policies of the Umayyad governors in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia). The revolt against Umayyad Arab rulers began in Tangiers in 740, led initially by the Berber rebel Maysara al-Matghari, but soon spread through the rest of the Maghreb (North Africa) and across the straits to al-Andalus (Spain). The rebellion led to the replacement of the caliph by four separate Muslim dynasties. | Africa |
| Ouled Sidi Cheikh Uprising | Revolt in Southern Oran | 19th | March 1864 | 1865 | The Ouled Sidi Cheikh Uprising, also known as the Revolt in Southern Oran and in French as l’Insurrection des Ouled Sidi Cheikh, was a conflict between French settlers in Algeria and the Ouled Sidi Cheikh, an Arab tribal confederacy in the West and South of Algeria led by the descendants of the Sufi saint Ouled Sidi Cheikh. The conflicts erupted in March 1864 due to French officers of the Bureau Arabe disrespecting Ouled traditions. Rebellions against the French spread across Algeria, and although these halted southward French expansion near the northwestern port of Oran, the French suppressed the uprising in April 1865. | Africa |
| Madhist War | Madhist Revolution | 19th | 1881 | 1899 | The Madhist War, also known as the Madhist Revolution, was a war in present-day Sudan between the Mahdist State, led by Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdullah, and the Khedivate of Egypt, a Western-leaning Egyptian government which had ruled Sudan since 1821. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi (‘expected one’) and his divine mission to purify Islam. After extensive campaigns, the Mahdi and his followers captured Khartoum and defeated a joint British-Egyptian military expedition. Though the Mahdi consolidated his religious empire, his rule was brief, and he died in June 1885. | Africa |
| Anfa Expedition | | 15th | 1468 | | The Anfa Expedition was a conflict between Morocco and the Portuguese, led by the Duke of Viseu and Beja. Anfa (present-day Casablanca) was one of Morocco’s most prosperous port cities, which owed its wealth to imports of currency and luxury goods. It was also a notorious haven for pirates, whose ships departed from the harbour to raid the Iberian peninsula’s coasts. Afonso V, King of Portugal requested that the Duke destroy the city to neutralise the threat it posed. In 1468, the Duke and his Portuguese fleet sacked and almost entirely raised Anfa. The city was left abandoned for almost three centuries. | Africa |
| Conquest of Asilah | Siege of Asilah | 15th | 1471 | 1471 | The Conquest of Asilah, also known as the Siege of Asilah, was a conflict between the Portuguese and the Wattasids in Asilah (Northwest Morocco). With an expansionist agenda, Afonso V arrived at Morocco’s Atlantic coast in August 1471 with an army of 30,000 men and 400 ships. Though the siege took place during a terrible storm to which a number of Portuguese ships were lost, the city of Asilah was successfully captured. Afonso V commissioned the Pastrana Tapestries to illustrate the Portuguese victory at Asilah in 1471, depicting the Portuguese fleet’s landing, the city’s bombardment and the final assault. | Africa |
| First Revolt of the Aurès | Guerre des Aurès ; Mouvement Insurrectionnel de l'Aurès | 19th | 1858 | 1859 | The First Revolt in the Aurès, also known in French as La Guerre des Aurès and the Mouvement Insurrectionnel de l'Aurès, was an insurgency led by Si Sadok-bel-Hadj against French colonial rule. Having successfully led other tribes to revolt against the French, Si Sadok convinced tribespeople across several villages in the Aurès mountains (northeastern Algeria) to rebel. The conflict was heavily and violently repressed by the French, resulting in the capture of Si Sadok and his troops. Si Sadok died in an Algier prison on the 26th of January 1862. | Africa |
| Toussaint Sanglante | Toussaint Rouge | 20th | 1 November 1954 | 1 November 1954 | The Toussaint Rouge, also known as Toussaint Sanglante (Bloody All-Saints' Day),was a series of attacks against the French colonial administration, which took place on 1 November 1954—the Catholic festival of All Saints' Day—in French Algeria. Growing anti-colonialist sentiments against the French had spread across the area and erupted into violence. Barracks and administrative complexes were attacked while bombs and assassinations were reported from the regions of Algier to Oran. The uprising helped spread anti-French resentment and is generally seen to have marked the start of the Algerian War. | Africa |
| Resistance of Sheikh Amoud in Hoggar | | 19th, 20th | 1881 | 1923 | The Resistance of Sheikh Amoud in Hoggar was a rebellion against French colonisation and occupation of Algeria, which hindered the expansionism of the French in the Algerian Sahara. The resistance included that of Bir El Ghrama in the Hoggar, the Battles of Djanet in 1909 and 1918 and the battle of Issako in 1920. Due to the constant advancement of the French colonists, Sheikh Amoud eventually fled to Libya, living there until his death in 1928. | Africa |
| Fall of Agadir | | 16th | March 1541 | September 1541 | The Fall of Agadir was the conquest of the city of Agadir by the Saadians against the Portuguese. Agadir had been occupied by the Portuguese from 1505 to 1541, when it fell to the Saadi Sultanate in a siege that lasted six months. The city had been badly defended and provisioned by the Portuguese, who had lost local support, which led to the surrender of the Portuguese Governor of Agadir and a near total removal of Portuguese presence. | Africa |
| June 4th Uprising | June 4th Rebellion | 20th | 4 June 1979 | 1979 | The June 4th Uprising, also known as the June 4th Rebellion, was an insurgency in Ghana caused by a combination of hardships including corruption, food shortages and widespread bushfires. The uprising was prompted by the military government’s trial of Jerry John Rawlings, a junior military officer in the Ghanaian army, for a failed coup attempt in May 1979. Though Rawlings was able to shine a light on the government’s corruption during this trial, he was sentenced to death. In retaliation, dissident soldiers helped Rawlings to escape his cell on the 3rd of June 1979. A coup followed the next day, as well as large-scale demonstrations across Ghana. | Africa |
| Akwamu Conquest of Accra | | 17th | 1677 | 1681 | The Akwamu Conquest of Accra was an attack led by Akwamuhene Ansa Sasraku II, on the Accra coast (present-day Ghana). Accra was a trading centre of gold and slaves for various European powers such as Portugal, Holland, and England. The Akwamu sacked and burnt the capital and King Okai Kwei fled into the protection of the Danish. The Akwamu gained economic benefits from their invasion of Accra and its importance in the gold and slave trades. | Africa |
| Baixa de Cassange Revolt | Greve da Baixa do Cassange | 20th | 3 Januray 1961 | 4 January 1961 | The Baixa de Cassange Revolt, also known as Greve da Baixa do Cassange, was an uprising in Angola which precipitated the Angolan War of Independence. The revolt began in Cotonang, a cotton-producing plantation, by dissatisfied workers who sought to improve their conditions. Workers attacked plantation bosses and set their own identification cards on fire. The Portuguese launched an air raid to suppress the revolt killing, according to some reports, 10,000 people. The uprising inspired other revolts across Angola. | Africa |
| Invasion of Bono | Asante Invasion | 18th | 1723 | 1724 | The invasion of Bono, also known as the Asante Invasion, was a conflict between the Asante empire, led by the Asantehene Opoku Ware, and Bono, an Akan state (present-day Brong-Ahafo region of Ghana). It is thought that the conflict began when the Bono ruler, Kwakye Ameyaw, sent a gift of gold dust to Asantehene Opoku Ware via an emissary. However, the emissary swapped the gold dust for guns and gunpowder, which Opoku Ware interpreted as an invitation to war. Opoku Ware and his Asante army destroyed Bono Manso (Bono’s capital) and much of Bono’s territory was seized. | Africa |
| Songhai Conquest of Hausaland | Songhai Conquests | 16th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Songhai Conquest of Hausaland, or the Songhai Conquests, was a series of wars between the Songhai King Askia Muhammad and the Kingdom of Hausaland. According to a publication written by the diplomat and author Leo Africanus between 1494 and 1554, the Songhai managed to conquer the cities of Katsina, Kano and Gobir and incorporate them into their growing empire. Leo Africanus places the Songhai invasions among the most important events in Africa during the 16th century. | Africa |
| Jameson Raid | | 19th | 29 December 1895 | 2 January 1896 | The Jameson Raid was a conflict between the Transvaal and the British colonial administration, led by Cecil Rhodes. Dr Leander Starr Jameson crossed into the Transvaal from present-day Botswana with the intention of an invasion. However, most of the Uitlanders (foreigners) had no interest in an uprising against the Transvaal government, the provocation of which had been Rhodes’ intention. The raid was a failure and Jameson was forced to surrender. | Africa |
| Yao Resistance | | 19th | 1885 | 1890 | The Yao Resistance was a conflict between the Yao people and the German forces colonising Southeast Africa (present-day Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi). Key events in the resistance occurred in Kilwa Kivinje, Mikindani and Lindi on the southern coast of Tanzania in 1888, when the German East Africa Company officials attempted to take control of these areas. In 1890, King Machemba issued a declaration to the German Commander, stating willingness to trade but not to submit to German authority. After further engagements, however, the Yao surrendered to German forces. | Africa |
| Mozambican War of Independence | | 20th | 25 September 1964 | 8 September 1974 | The Mozambican War of Independence was a conflict between FRELIMO, Frente de Libertação de Moçambique, and the Portuguese colonial administration. FRELIMO was formed in 1962 by representatives from exiled political groups. In 1964, FRELIMO’s guerrilla forces attacked targets in the north of Mozambique and sparked a war for independence. Portugal, experiencing a similar sentiment in all its colonies, launched a violent military defence which was largely ineffectual. | Africa |
| First Khoikhoi–Dutch War | First Khoi-Dutch War | 17th | 1659 | 1660 | The First Khoikhoi-Dutch War, also known as the First Khoi-Dutch War, was the first war in a series of conflicts between the Khoikhoi of the Cape (present-day South Africa),and Dutch colonists. The Dutch had ordered Khoikhoi to graze their cattle out of sight of Dutch settlements and off land claimed by the Dutch, but that had previously been used as grazing routes by the Khoikhoi. This became a source of tension and led to the start of open conflict and the war. Khoikhoi men seized Dutch cattle, while the Dutch responded by attacking with an armed militia. The Khoikhoi continued their assault until a peace treaty was signed. | |
| 1936-1939 Arab Revolt in Palestine | Great Revolt | 20th | April 1936 | August 1939 | The 1936-1939 Arab Revolt in Palestine, also called the Great Revolt, was an uprising in Mandatory Palestine of Palestinian Arabs against the British administration. The Palestinian Arabs wanted independence and to end the policy of Jewish immigration and land purchases due to fears over the Jewish national home. Conflict has occurred between Jews and Arabs in the region since 1920, with Arab nationalism increasing. The revolt took place in two phases between April 1936 and August 1939, the latter phase being mainly directed at British forces due to British repression. | Asia |
| Battle off Hormuz | Battle of the Persian Gulf | 17th | 11 February 1625 | 12 February 1625 | The Battle off Hormuz, also known as the Battle of the Persian Gulf, was a large naval battle that took place in February 1625 in the strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The conflict was between the Portuguese Empire’s state of India and the allied forces of the Dutch East India Company and the English East India Company. The Portuguese aimed to reconquer Hormuz, an important strait for trade, which they had lost to Persian and British forces in 1622. The battle resulted in a draw and a treaty regarding commerce in the gulf was agreed upon. | Asia |
| Chhota Ghallughara | | 18th | 1746 | 1746 | The Chhota Ghallughara refers to the Mughal Empire’s massacre of the Sikh population across the Punjab that took place in 1746. Sikhs created the Order of the Khalsa in response to the religious persecution that they faced and in opposition to the Mughal’s oppressive rule. The government outlawed the Khalsa, who then sought refuge in remote areas. Rewards for the discovery and killing of Sikhs were established by a Mughal governor, and the persecution of Sikhs ensued. This massacre was followed by the Wadda Ghalughara, the Durrani Empire’s massacre of Sikhs in the Punjab, in 1762. | Asia |
| Waziristan Campaign of 1919-1920 | | 20th | November 1919 | December 1920 | The Waziristan Campaign of 1919-1920 began in November 1919. It took place in the mountainous Waziristan region where British and Indian forces conducted a military campaign against the Waziri and Mahsud tribes. The tribes thought that the British were going to give Waziristan to Afghanistan in a peace treaty, for which reason they responded with raids and attacks on British-administered areas. The British campaign was an attempt to subdue the Mahsud and Waziris. The campaign ended in December 1920 and led to the establishment of a permanent British garrison in Razmak, North Waziristan, Pakistan. | Asia |
| Mahmud Barzanji Revolts | | 20th | May 1919 | July 1924 | The Mahmud Barzanji Revolts refer to two revolts that took place between May-June 1919 and November 1922-July 1924 in the British Mandate of Iraq. The revolts were in opposition to British rule and aimed to establish a Kurdish state. They were led by Mahmud Barzanji, a Kurdish national leader supported by Kurdish tribes. The British had given Barzanji the title of administrator of Kurdistan, but subsequently became concerned about his increasing aims for power. When Barzani declared the Kingdom of Kurdistan and started a rebellion, Iraqi and British forces responded with force, ultimately stopping the revolt. | Asia |
| Waziristan Campaign of 1936-1939 | | 20th | 1936 | 1939 | The Waziristan Campaign of 1936-1939 took place in Waziristan in present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, between the British Empire’s Indian army and Pashtun nationalists led by Mirzali Khan of Waziristan. Tensions had been mounting between Waziri tribes and the British, coming to a head in the conflict of 1921-1924. Khan’s anti-British views and undermining of the government provoked the British to respond with an expedition to assert their power. Conflict ensued instead, and Khan’s popularity increased, which led to an insurgency that the British ultimately quenched by force. | Asia |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 | Nicholas I's Turkish War | 19th | 26 April 1828 | 14 September 1829 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, also known as Nicholas I's Turkish War, was a military conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire sparked by the Greek War of Independence, which had been going on since 1821. The Russian Empire, sympathetic to the Greek cause, supported the Greek rebels against Ottoman rule. Following the Ottoman defeat, Russia won various Black Sea territories and grew its influence in Eastern Europe and the Balkans at the cost of Ottoman territories. Greece also established itself as a new sovereign state. | Asia |
| 1959 Mosul Uprising | | 20th | 7 March 1959 | 11 March 1959 | The 1959 Mosul Uprising refers to Arab nationalists’ attempt at a coup in Mosul, Iraq, against Abd al-Karim Qasim, the Iraqi Prime Minister. The nationalists wanted to create an Arab nationalist government and join the United Arab Republic. Qasim’s increasing associations with the Iraqi Communist Party, as well as his support of a rally led by Communist-backed Peace Partisans, were contributing factors to the uprising in Mosul. The rebellion started on 7 March 1959 with skirmishes between nationalists and communists. The rebellion was stopped by the military on 11 March 1959. | Asia |
| Yemeni Civil War of 1994 | | 20th | 4 May 1994 | 7 July 1994 | The Yemeni Civil War of 1994 was fought between North Yemen and South Yemen’s Yemeni Socialist Party from 4 May to 7 July 1994. A crisis had mounted following the establishment of the Republic of Yemen, during which the election of 1993 resulted in the North gaining more power than the South instead of equal leadership, and the South being subjected to economic marginalisation and violence. These tensions triggered warfare between the separate North and South armies. The war concluded with victory for the North, reinforcing the country’s unification. | Asia |
| 1991-1992 South Ossetia War | First South Ossetia War | 20th | 5 January 1991 | 24 June 1992 | The 1991-1992 South Ossetia War, also known as the First South Ossetia War, occurred between 5 January 1991 and 24 June 1992 between Georgia and South and North Ossetia. Tensions between Georgians and South Ossetians living in South Ossetia led to the war, which was sparked by South Ossetia’s aim for independence from Georgia. Georgian forces responded with an advance into South Ossetia and an economic blockade. A Russian-brokered ceasefire ended the war, and South Ossetia was subsequently split between Georgia and the de facto independent Republic of South Ossetia. | Asia |
| Portuguese Conquest of Hormuz | | 16th | October 1507 | 1 April 1515 | The Portuguese Conquest of Hormuz refers to the Portuguese capture of Hormuz Island in present-day Iran which began in October 1507. Portugal aimed to capture Hormuz to block trade through Beirut and control the trade between India and Europe that was passing through the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese campaigned against Hormuz in 1507 and the island surrendered. However, discontent grew among the Portuguese in Hormuz and led to a mutiny, with Afonso de Albuquerque leaving the island. The Portuguese later returned to Hormuz and reconquered it on 1 April 1515. | Asia |
| Armenian-Azerbaijani War | Karabakh War of 1918-1920 | 20th | 30 March 1918 | 28 November 1920 | The Armenian-Azerbaijani War, also known as the Karabakh War of 1918-1920, took place from 30 March 1918 to 28 November 1920. It was fought mostly in present-day Azerbaijan and Armenia. In 1918, both the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and the Republic of Armenia declared independence, leading to disputes over territorial claims. Turkish forces backed Azerbaijan at the beginning of the war, with the British intervening in pursuit of peace and stability. Battles, skirmishes, and massacres ensued. The war ended when Soviet Russian forces invaded, and the disputed territories were sovietised. | Asia |
| Polygar Wars | Palaiyakkarar Wars | 18th, 19th | 1750 | 1805 | The Polygar Wars, also known as the Palaiyakkarer Wars, took place from 1750 to 1805 in the Tirunelveli Kingdom of present-day Tamil Nadu, India. The wars consisted of a series of violence between the Polygars, also known as the Palaiyakkers, and British East India Company forces. The Polygars fought against the British presence in India but were defeated in the First Polygar War. A larger Polygar alliance was formed, which rebelled against the British again in the Second Polygar War. Eventually, the British won the war, with territory in Tamil Nadu coming under direct British control. | Asia |
| First Yemenite War | | 20th | 6 September 1972 | 19 October 1972 | The First Yemenite War began on 26 September and ended on 19 October 1972. The war was a border conflict between the Yemen Arab Republic of North Yemen and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, now known as South Yemen, over political differences. North Yemen forces invaded the Qatabah area of South Yemen and South Yemen fought back using air strikes that regained the lost territory. A ceasefire ended the war, and the Cairo Agreement of 1972 aimed to unify the two sides into a democratic state. | Asia |
| Sa’ada Wars | Six Wars | 21st | 2004 | 2010 | The Sa’ada Wars, also known as the Six Wars, refer to six conflicts between the Yemen government and the Houthi movement that took place from 2004 to 2010. The Houthis’ anti-United States stance, and the accusation of the Houthis as a proxy of the Islamic Republic, were contributing factors to the war. The Yemeni government aimed to prevent an insurgency and the Houthis took measures of armed resistance. Other tribes joined the Houthi rebels in the wars, while the Yemeni government enlisted the Saudi Arabian military. In the last war, the Houthis seized parts of Sa’ada and launched raids into Saudi Arabia. | Asia |
| Safavid-Portuguese Conflicts | Persian-Portuguese War | 16th, 17th | 1507 | 1622 | The Safavid-Portuguese Conflicts, also known as the Persian-Portuguese War, was fought from 1507 to 1622 between the Portuguese Empire and Safavid Persia. The Portuguese Empire aimed to control trade by capturing territory in the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese Empire invaded Hormuz, and the new vassal state then joined Portugal to invade Bahrain and other islands and ports. In 1602, Persian troops forced the Portuguese to retreat from Bahrain and led a siege to regain Hormuz. The English East India Company joined the Persian forces’ expedition with a view to opening up trade in the Persian Gulf. | Asia |
| Sukhumi Massacre | | 20th | 27 September 1993 | 27 September 1993 | The Sukhumi Massacre refers to the violent ethnic cleansing of Georgian inhabitants of Sukhumi, the capital city of the disputed Abkhazia region in Georgia, which today is partially recognised as the Republic of Abkhazia. The massacre took place on 27 September 1993. Scholars debate whether the perpetrators of the massacre were Abkhaz militias or their North Caucasian and Russian allies. Abkhazian separatists wanted independence from Georgia, while Georgia wanted to maintain Abkhazia as part of its country. The massacre resulted in the fall of Sukhumi to Abkhazia, ending the War in Abkhazia. | Asia |
| Second Iraqi-Kurdish War | | 20th | 1974 | 1975 | The Second Iraqi-Kurdish War began in April 1974 and was fought between the Ba’ath Party of Iraq and the Kurdish Democratic Party. The 1970 peace plan for Kurdish autonomy had not been implemented successfully by 1974, and oil-rich Kurdish land was deliberately excluded as Iraq aimed to grow its influence in oil-rich Kurdish regions. The Kurds revolted, supported by Iran and Israel, and the Iraqi Army tried to force the Kurds toward the Iranian border. The war ended when Iraq and Iran agreed for Iraqi territory to be ceded to Iran in exchange for them withdrawing their support of the Kurds. | Asia |
| Palestinian Insurgency in South Lebanon | | 20th | 1968 | 1982 | The Palestinian Insurgency in South Lebanon took place in Israel and Lebanon from 1968 to 1982. The conflict was an uprising of Palestinians based in South Lebanon against Israel and the Maronite Christians of Lebanon. The Palestine Liberation Organisation made raids into Israel, targeting Israelis to fight for Palestinian land. Israel retaliated with attacks on Lebanon to encourage the country to stop sheltering the attacking Palestinians. The insurgency destabilised Lebanon and is considered a contributing factor in the Lebanese Civil War that began in 1975 | Asia |
| Second Anglo-Sikh War | | 19th | 18 April 1848 | 29 March 1849 | The Second Anglo-Sikh War was a conflict that took place from 18 April 1848 to 29 March 1849 between the Sikh Empire and the English East India Company in the Punjab. Multan, a city in the Punjab, present-day Pakistan, was part of the Sikh Kingdom and following a dispute about tax after the first Anglo-Sikh War, the British appointed Sirdar Khan Singh as the new ruler with an accompanying British agent. The two were murdered on arrival in Multan and an uprising occurred against the British. Battles, a siege, and a rebellion ensued. The war resulted in a British victory with the Sikh army and their allies being forced to retreat. | Asia |
| Hill States-Sikh Wars | Sikh-Pahari Raja Wars | 17th, 18th, 19th | 1682 | 1815 | The Hill States-Sikh Wars, also known as the Sikh-Pahari Raja Wars, were fought from 1682 to 1815 between Sikhs and Rajas of the Hill States in the Sivalik Hills, a mountain range of the outer Himalayas at the boundary of India, Pakistan, and Nepal. Raja Bhim Chand, a Rajput king, was jealous of Sikh Guru Gobind Singh’s growing status. The Raja attacked the Sikhs when they ignored his objections to the practice of the Ranjit Nagara. Warfare ensued in the Sivalik Hills, with the conflict ultimately resulting in a Sikh victory. | Asia |
| War in Afghanistan | | 21st | 7 October 2001 | 30 August 2021 | The War in Afghanistan took place between 7 October 2001 and 30 August 2021. A United States-led coalition invaded Afghanistan to remove Taliban rule and establish a new democracy to prevent the Taliban from returning to power. The invasion was in response to the Taliban’s refusal to hand over Osama bin Laden to the United States after the September 11 attacks. The Taliban and Islamist groups’ insurgency against the United States in Afghanistan led to a deal in February 2020 for all United States troops to leave Afghanistan by 2021, while at the same time, the 2021 Taliban offensive took place. | Asia |
| Ottoman-Hotaki War | Ottoman-Persian War of 1722-1727 | 18th | 1722 | October 1727 | The Ottoman-Hotaki War, also known as the Ottoman-Persian War of 1722-1727, was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Hotak dynasty of the Afghan monarchy between 1722 and 1727. The two powers fought over control of western and north-western Iran. The Ottoman Empire’s rule had expanded into Persia, but the Hotak dynasty’s leader, Ashraf Hotak, claimed he was the leader of Persia and that the Ottomans must cede their territory. Insulted by Hotak’s demands, the Ottomans declared war on the dynasty. After a second battle in which the Ottomans were defeated, the two sides signed the Treaty of Hamedan on October 1727 to end the war. | Asia |
| Treaty of Constantinople of 1724 | Russo-Ottoman Treaty | 18th | 12 June 1724 | | The Treaty of Constantinople of 1724, also known as the Russo-Ottoman Treaty, was an agreement between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The treaty divided the territories of Safavid Iran between both empires, which were in a race to occupy Iranian lands and were about to start a war over the city of Gandjeh. However, the territorial gains achieved by both empires proved to be short-lived as the subsequent Treaty of Resht in 1732 and the Treaty of Ganja in 1735 resulted in the return of all territories previously taken by Russia back to Iran. | Asia |
| Sheikh Khazal Rebellion | | 20th | July 1922 | November 1924 | The Sheikh Khazal Rebellion refers to an uprising led by Khazal al-Kabi, Sheikh of Muhammara in the Khuzestan province, Iran, against the Pahlavi dynasty of Iran, which took place from July 1922 to November 1924. Khazal wanted to prevent Reza Shah, leader of the Pahlavi dynasty, from gaining more power, while Reza Shah saw Khazal as an obstacle to his plans. Tensions rose as Iranian soldiers designated to Khuzestan were attacked by Khazal’s supporters and when the Iranian government’s demands were rejected by Khazal. Reza Shah prepared an army, but following negotiations, Khazal surrendered to Reza Shah. | Asia |
| May 17 Agreement | | 20th | 17 May 1983 | | The May 17 Agreement was made in 1983 during the Lebanese Civil War, which lasted from 1975 to 1990. The agreement was signed by representatives from the United States, Israel, and Lebanon. It concerned the withdrawal of Israeli troops from Beirut following Israel’s invasion of Lebanon. The treaty ended warfare between Israel and Lebanon that had been ongoing since 1948, aimed to improve relations between the countries, and established a Lebanese Army security region along the South Lebanon border. The treaty was not upheld by the Lebanese government because of Syrian opposition to it. | Asia |
| Yemeni Revolution | Yemeni Uprising of 2011 | 21st | 27 January 2011 | 27 February 2012 | The Yemeni Revolution, also known as the Yemen Uprising of 2011, took place from 27 January 2011 to 27 February 2012. Pro-democracy activists and opposition members first protested against unemployment, economic underdevelopment, corruption, and the government’s aims to alter Yemen’s constitution, with their demands developing into calling for President Ali Abdullah Saleh’s resignation. Police and loyalists violently clashed, and mass resignations of Yemeni officials took place over protests. The uprising ended after negotiations in which Saleh agreed to transfer power to his Vice President. | Asia |
| Kuwaiti-Rashidi War | | 20th | 15 December 1900 | 23 April 1901 | The Kuwaiti-Rashidi War was fought from 15 December 1900 to 23 April 1901 in the Emirate of Jabal Shammar, present-day Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Jordan. The sheikh of Kuwait was threatened by his dependence on Turkish authorities and so allied with other Saudi anti-Rashidi emirs to invade the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. The Kuwaitis were also supported by Britain who sought to weaken Jabal Shammar. The Kuwaitis were defeated in the Battle of al-Sarif in March 1901, after which they returned to Kuwait. The emir of Jabal Shammar then tried to capture Al Jahra, Kuwait, but ultimately retreated. | Asia |
| Al-Hasa Expedition | | 19th | 23 April 1871 | 3 June 1871 | The Al-Hasa Expedition refers to the Ottoman Empire’s campaign into al-Hasa, also known as Hajar, present-day al-Hasa Governorate, Saudi Arabia, that took place between 20 April and 3 June 1871. The Ottomans claimed that their aims for the campaign were to help Imam Abdullah bin Faisal, the previous ruler of the Emirate of Najd, restore his control of Najd from his brother, but the Ottomans also aimed to extend their influence into the Persian Gulf. The campaign was successful, and al-Hasa fell, which resulted in the Ottomans taking control of al-Hasa and incorporating it into their empire. | Asia |
| Peace of Amasya | | 16th | 29 May 1555 | | The Peace of Amaysa was signed between Safavid Iran and the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1555. The treaty was observed for approximately twenty years. It concluded the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1532-1555 which was fought on grounds of territorial disputes and ended with the Iranians sending a peace offer to the Ottomans. The offer was accepted, and the treaty agreed on a border between Iran and the Ottoman Empire, splitting Armenia and Georgia between the two powers. The treaty also allowed the Ottomans to gain most of Iraq, which enabled access to the Persian Gulf. | Asia |
| Treaty of Serav | | 17th | 26 September 1618 | | The Treaty of Serav was signed on 26 September 1618 in Sarab, Central District of Sarab County, East Azerbaijan, Iran. The treaty was agreed upon following the Ottoman-Safavid War that had renewed in 1615 after Abbas the Great refused the terms of a previous treaty in 1612. The Ottomans aimed to capture Yerevan, present-day Armenia, but as no progress was made, they moved their target to Ardabil in north-western Iran. Abbas the Great sought peace and the Treaty of Serav was agreed. Many clauses of the prior treaty were reiterated though Iran’s annual tribute to the Ottomans was reduced. | Asia |
| Treaty of Kerden | | 18th | 4 September 1746 | | The Treaty of Kerden was signed on 4 September 1746 between the Ottoman Empire and the Afsharid dynasty of Iran. The Afsharid dynasty aimed to regain control of former Iranian territory and found a Persian empire. The treaty, signed in Kerden, Iran, ended the Ottoman-Persian War of 1743-1746. It agreed to a boundary line between the two countries that reiterated the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab. As part of the agreement, both sides freed prisoners of war. The Ottomans agreed not to oppose Ashfarid rule of Iran, while Iran would not force Ottoman acceptance of Shia Islam as the fifth sect of Sunni Islam. | Asia |
| Adjarian Revolution | Second Rose Revolution | 21st | 23 November 2003 | 20 July 2004 | The Adjarian revolution, also known as the Second Rose Revolution, took place between 23 November 2003 and 20 July 2004 in the Adjaran Autonomous Republic, Georgia following the Rose Revolution of November 2003. The leader of the Adjaran Autonomous Republic, Aslan Abashidze, refused the central authority of post-revolution Georgia that had resulted from the Rose Revolution. Police and Abashidze’s supporters clashed with opposition protesters demanding Abashidze’s resignation. Georgia imposed sanctions on Adjaran and the Georgian president made a deal that saw Abashidze stepping down. | Asia |
| Russo-Persian War of 1722-1723 | Persian Campaign of Peter the Great | 18th | 18 June 1722 | 12 September 1723 | The Russo-Persian War of 1722 to 1723, also known as the Persian Campaign of Peter the Great, was fought between the Russian Empire and Safavid Iran from 18 June 1722 to 12 September 1723. It was triggered by attacks on Russian merchants in a Safavid Iranian city, which violated a treaty between Russia and the Safavids. Safavid Iran was already weakened, and Russia saw an opportunity to invade to expand its imperial rule and prevent the Ottoman Empire from increasing power. The war resulted in Russia’s annexation of regions in Iran and the 1723 Treaty of Saint Petersburg. | Asia |
| Treaty of Hamedan | | 18th | October 1727 | | The Treaty of Hamedan was signed in October 1727 in Hamedan, Iran, between the Ottoman Empire and the Hotaki dynasty of the Afghan monarchy. The peace treaty ended the Ottoman-Hotaki War of 1722 to 1727, in which Ashraf Hotaki had offended the Ottomans when claiming he was the heir to Persia and demanding the Ottomans to cede their territory. The peace treaty agreed for Ashraf Hotaki to be recognised as the Shah of Persia and given the right to mint coins. The treaty’s terms were favourable to the Ottoman Empire, and it was agreed that the empire would have sovereignty over western and north-western Iran. | Asia |
| 2011 Bahraini Uprising | Pearl Uprising | 21st | 14 February 2011 | 18 March 2011 | The 2011 Bahraini uprising, also known as the Pearl Uprising, occurred from 14 February to 18 March 2011 in Bahrain. The uprising consisted of anti-government protests by mostly Shi’ite and some Sunni Muslims of the Bahraini opposition, who were against the Bahrain government and monarchy. At first, the protesters aimed for more political freedom, but their aims developed into calling for the end of the monarchy following a night raid against the protesters on 17 February 2011. To crush the uprising, the Bahrain government allied with troops from Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. | Asia |
| Ahom-Mughal Conflicts | | 17th | 1616 | 1682 | The Ahom-Mughal Conflicts from 1616 to 1682 were fought between the Ahom Kingdom, based in Brahmaputra Valley, present-day Assam, India, and the Mughal Empire. The Ahoms and Mughal Empire were natural opponents due to the Mughal’s alliance with an Ahom enemy and their expansion into nearby territory in the north-eastern frontier, which unnerved the Ahoms. The Mughals aimed to conquer Assam, India, for imperial aims. Skirmishes, battles, and advances took place, which resulted in the Ahom Kingdom’s victory and the Mughals being forced from the region in the Battle of Itakhuli of 1682. | Asia |
| Cedar Revolution | Independence Uprising | 21st | 14 February 2005 | 27 April 2005 | The Cedar Revolution, also known as the Independence Uprising, occurred between 14 February and 27 April 2005 in Lebanon. The uprising occurred during the leadership of a pro-Syrian prime minister and was triggered by the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister. The resistance called to end Syria’s occupation of Lebanon and Syrian influence on the country and aimed to establish a new independent government and an investigation of the former prime minister’s assassination. The revolution was successful, with the prime minister resigning and Syrian troops withdrawing. | Asia |
| Treaty of Asurar Ali | | 17th | February 1639 | | The Treaty of Asurar Ali was signed on February 1639 between the Mughal Empire and the Ahom Kingdom. The treaty aimed to end the Mughal Empire’s aims to expand into Ahom territory for imperial gains. It took place during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts after the Mughals were defeated by the Ahoms in Duimunisila in November 1638. The treaty confirmed the boundary between the Mughals and Ahoms and that the Mughals would not intervene in the Ahom kingdom. It also entailed Ahom recognition of the Mughal’s rule in Kamrup in west Assam, India. | Asia |
| 1717 Omani Invasion of Bahrain | | 18th | 1717 | 1717 | The 1717 Omani Invasion of Bahrain refers to the Sultanate of Oman’s conquest of Bahrain, which had been ruled by the Safavid dynasty for 115 years. The Omanis were of the Ibadite branch of Islam, and their invasion was supported by some of the region’s Sunni Muslim tribes. The Safavid dynasty’s power was on the decline due to Afghanistan’s invasion of Iran, which had also caused instability in the region. The Yaruba dynasty of Oman saw an opportunity to invade Bahrain in this climate for wealth and were successful in their aims. | Asia |
| Bengal Sultanate-Kamata Kingdom War | | 15th | 1498 | 1498 | The Bengal Sultanate-Kamata Kingdom War was fought in 1498 in North Bengal and Western Assam. Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah declared war on the Kamata Kingdom because of a Brahmin’s wishes after his son was executed by the Kamata king due to promiscuity with the queen. The Bengal Sultanate sent forces to capture Kamata, with the siege resulting in the destruction of the city and the fall of the Hindu Khen dynasty. King Nilambar of Kamata was imprisoned and the kingdom was annexed to the Bengal Sultanate. | Asia |
| Batken Conflict | | 20th | 30 April 1999 | 27 September 1999 | The Batken Conflict was fought between 30 July and 27 September 1999 in the Batken Region of Kyrgyzstan. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan clashed with Kyrgyzstan authorities over the Kyrgyzstan-Uzbekistan border when the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan militants entered Uzbek and Kyrgyz areas from Tajikistan. Before the conflict, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan militants had attacked the Uzbek government with the aim of establishing an Islamic state. The militants occupied Barak, Kyrgyzstan until the Kyrgyz Army received support from Russia and forced the rebels back to Tajikistan. | Asia |
| Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa | Waziristan War | 21st | 15 March 2004 | Ongoing | The Insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, also known as the Waziristan War, began on 16 March 2004 and is ongoing. The conflict between Pakistan and insurgent Islamist groups became classed as an insurgency in 2017. The war was triggered by the Pakistan Armed forces’ search for al-Qaeda fighters in Waziristan, a tribal region in Pakistan, which developed into an armed conflict with militant groups. The increase of military in the region angered local tribal leaders. The war has been perceived as Pakistan’s contribution to the United States-led War on Terror. | Asia |
| Iran-PJAK Conflict | | 21st | 1 April 2004 | Ongoing | The Iran-PJAK Conflict began on 1 April 2004 in the Kurdistan Province of Iran and Western Iran between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Kurdish rebels of the Kurdistan Free Life Party, also known as the PJAK. The goals of the PJAK, who were associated with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, have included the establishment of an independent Kurdistan, autonomy for Kurds in the region, and improving Kurdish rights under oppressive rule. Their first armed attack on Iran occurred in 2004 when protesters were attacked by Iranian forces. Clashes between Iran and the PJAK are ongoing, with heavy losses on both sides. | Asia |
| Basmachi Revolt | Freemen’s Revolt of 1917-1924 | 20th | 1917 | 1924 | The Basmachi Revolt, also known as the Freemen’s Revolt, took place in Turkestan, corresponding to areas in present-day Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The revolt occurred against Soviet Turkestan restructuring of Muslim society. Muslim groups in Turkestan formed the Kokand Autonomous Government in retaliation, but the Red Army attacked Kokand and restored their control of the region. The Basmachi movement revolted against the Bolshevik’s Red Army, who however were able to crush the rebellion using military force and political and cultural concessions. | Asia |
| Khivan Revolution | | 20th | 1917 | 1924 | The Khivan Revolution took place between 1917 and 1924 in the Khanate of Khiva, present-day west Uzbekistan and north Turkmenistan. The revolution occurred after the February Revolution of 1917 when discontent rose in the khanate due to Isfandiyar Khan’s conservative rulership that stood in the way of reform. A coup was made in 1918, but discontent arose under the new ruler, too. A new communist party that was supported by Russia’s Red Army led an uprising against the khanate. The revolution led to the establishment of a republic and Khiva’s integration as part of the USSR. | Asia |
| War of the Heavenly Horses | Han-Dayuan War | 2nd BC | 104 BCE | 101 BCE | The War of the Heavenly Horses, also known as the Han-Dayuan War, was fought between 104 and 102 BCE in the Ferghana Valley of Greco-Bactria in present-day eastern Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and northern Tajikistan. The war was fought between the Chinese Han dynasty and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ruled by the Saka, also referred to as the Dayaun, when they stopped the Han dynasty’s import of Ferghana horses for their cavalry. The Han dynasty successfully invaded Greco-Bactria in retaliation, which led to the establishment of a pro-Han regime. | Asia |
| Iran Crisis of 1946 | Azerbaijan Crisis | 20th | November 1945 | 15 December 1946 | The Iran Crisis of 1946, also known as the Azerbaijan Crisis, was fought between November 1945 and 15 December 1946. The Soviet Union and British-allied occupation of Iran was meant to end after World War II, but instead, United States troops joined. Tensions between the occupiers grew and provoked the Soviet Union’s refusal to leave Iran and their support of the Azerbaijan People’s Government and the Kurdish separatist Republic of Mahabad. The separatist groups fought Iranian forces backed by the British. The crisis ended when the United States used diplomatic pressure and the Soviets left Iran. | Asia |
| Tashkent Rebellion | | 20th | September 1917 | 13 November 1917 | The Tashkent Rebellion occurred between September 1917 and 13 November 1917 in Tashkent in the Russian Empire, present-day in Uzbekistan. The rebellion came after Tashkent Soviet had been formed earlier in 1917 and increased their power in the region. Conflict arose when the Russian Provisional Government attempted to restore authority in Tashkent, and a revolutionary committee was formed that aimed for soviet control of Tashkent. The Russian Provisional Government fell, and further conflict between loyalists and rebels led to the establishment of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. | Asia |
| First Kyrgyz Revolution | Tulip Revolution | 21st | 27 February 2005 | 11 April 2005 | The First Kyrgyz Revolution, also known as the Tulip Revolution, occurred between 22 March and 11 April 2005 in Kyrgyzstan. Corruption and vote rigging under the President of Kyrgyzstan, Askar Akayev, caused protesters, joined by the People’s Movement of Kyrgyzstan, to call for his resignation. The protesters occupied government buildings, took control of southern cities and were supported by the United States government and NGOs. The president fled Kyrgyzstan and resigned, which led to Kurmanbek Bakiyev, the People’s Movement of Kyrgyzstan leader, becoming interim head of state. | Asia |
| 2010 Kyrgyz Revolution | Second Kyrgyz Revolution | 21st | 6 April 2010 | 15 April 2010 | The 2010 Kyrgyz Revolution, also known as the Second Kyrgyz Revolution, took place from 6 April to 15 April 2010. Rising energy rates, perceived corruption, and the country’s economy were all contributing factors to the uprising against the Kyrgyzstan government, which ultimately resulted in the fall of the government and the establishment of a new democratic parliamentary system for Kyrgyzstan. The uprising began when opposition leaders protested against the corrupt government and increasing living expenses, which developed into nationwide violence. | Asia |
| Kyrgyz Revolution of 2020 | Third Kyrgyz Revolution | 21st | 5 October 2020 | 15 October 2020 | The 2020 Kyrgyz Revolution, also known as the Third Kyrgyz Revolution, took place between 5 and 15 October 2020 and was sparked by parliamentary electoral fraud in the October 2020 elections, along with economic decline in the region. Protesters believed that the vote was rigged and that parties were buying votes. They aimed for President Sooronbay Jeenbekov to resign and for there to be a free, fair election. The protesters attacked police officers and freed a former president from jail. On 15 October 2020, Jeenbekov resigned and Sadyr Japarov became the acting president of Kyrgyzstan. | Asia |
| Mughal Conquest of Bengal | | 16th | 1572 | 1576 | The Mughal Conquest of Bengal from 1572 to 1576 refers to the Mughal Empire’s invasion of territory under the Sultanate of Bengal which was ruled by the Afghan Karrani dynasty. According to the Mughal emperor’s official historian, the decision to invade was because of Bengalis suffering under Afghan rule, but the Mughals more likely aimed to exploit the political void caused by the death of the Bengal Sultan or acted in retaliation to a Bengali raid into Mughal territory. Battles ensued in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Bangladesh until the Mughals claimed victory in the Battle of Raj Mahal of 1576. | Asia |
| Andijan Uprising of 1898 | | 19th | 29 May 1898 | 29 May 1898 | The Andijan Uprising of 1898 was a short and significant rebellion that took place on 17 May 1898 in Andijan, Ferghana Oblast in the Russian Empire, present-day Uzbekistan. The Russian Tsarist military garrison were attacked by Andijan armed rebels supported by Ferghana, present-day Kyrgyzstan, and some of Samarkand oblast, present-day Uzbekistan. The rebel leader’s reasons for the uprising against Russian rule were Russian non-compliance with Islamic ways of life and the view that the Russian rulers were not concerned about the morals and lives of the people they ruled over. | Asia |
| Bukharan Revolution | | 20th | 1917 | 1925 | The Bukharan Revolution took place between 1917 and 1925 in Bukhara, Emirate of Bukhara, present-day Uzbaekistan when the Young Bukharians and the Bukhara Communist Party revolted against Emir Sayid Alim Khan’s regime. The Young Bukharians were reformists who wanted a modern national state for Muslims of Bukhara, while the Bukhara Communist Party aimed to establish a Sovietised republic. Failed negotiations with the Emir led to attempts to overthrow him. The Communist group and the Young Bukharians’ armed insurgency was ultimately a success, and the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic was formed. | Asia |
| Red Army Invasion of Armenia | Armenian-Soviet War | 20th | 24 September 1920 | 29 November 1920 | The Red Army Invasion of Armenia, also known as the Armenian-Soviet War, took place between 24 September 1920 and 29 November 1920. The Soviet Union wanted to spread revolution and aimed to establish a Soviet government in the First Republic of Armenia founded in 1918 but which had previously been part of the Russian Empire. The Soviet Red Army invaded Armenia and used an Armenian Bolshevik-led insurgency and Turkey’s attacks on Armenia to sovietise Armenia. The war resulted in victory for the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. | Asia |
| Peace Agreement in North Waziristan | Miranshah Peace Accord | 21st | 6 September 2006 | | The Peace Agreement in North Waziristan, also known as the Miranshah Peace Accord, was signed on 5 September 2006. The government of Pakistan and tribes of the Waziristan region signed the agreement in Miranshah, North Waziristan District, Pakistan. The aim of the accord was to reach an agreement following the end of the Waziristan War between Pakistani military and rebel groups in the region who were connected to the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. The accord agreed for the government and North Waziristan militants to stop attacks on one another and for militants to stop cross-border movement. | Asia |
| Rajput Rebellion | | 18th | 21 April 1708 | 11 June 1710 | The Rajput Rebellion was fought from 21 April 1708 to 11 June 1710 in Rajputana, corresponding to present-day Rajasthan, Haryana, and Delhi National Capital Region, India. The Mughal emperor’s bad treatment of Rajput Rajas triggered the rebellion, causing the Rajas to ally and revolt against the Mughals. The Mughal regent aimed for peace, but the Rajput Rajas were already reclaiming territory from the Mughals and wanted the land seized by Aurangzeb, the previous Mughal Emperor, to be restored to them. Violence ensued between the two sides, which resulted in the defeat of the Mughals. | Asia |
| Truce of Shamkor | | 15th | September 1401 | September 1401 | The Truce of Shamkor was signed by King George VII of Georgia and Timur, ruler of the Timurid Empire. It was signed in September 1401 after Timur sent forces to Georgia on hearing of King George VII’s aim to relieve Alinjak castle, Nakhichevan in present-day Azerbaijan, which had recently surrendered to Timur. King George VII wanted peace and security and so agreed to a treaty. The Truce of Shamkor demanded that Georgia pay tribute to Timur, provide troops to the Timurid Empire, allow Timur’s army transit, treat Muslims equally, and for Christianity not to be practised in Muslim territory. | Asia |
| Parthian-Bactrian War | | 2nd BC | 171 BCE | 165 BCE | The Parthian-Bactrian War took place between 171 to 165 BCE when King Mithridates I of the Iranian Parthian Empire invaded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, in present-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. The Parthian reason for invading was the Greco-Bactrians extending their borders because of the consistent warfare in nearby territory that had weakened the Greco-Bactrians. The Parthian Empire claimed victory in the war and gained Western Bactria as part of their empire. | Asia |
| Shapur II‘s Arab Campaign | | 4th | 325 | 325 | Shapur II’s Arab Campaign refers to the Sasanian Empire’s expedition in 325 against Arab tribes including the Iyad tribe of Asoristan in present-day Iraq and Banu Tamim who were based in the Hajar mountains, in present-day Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Shapur II’s campaign aimed to pacify the Arab tribes and secure his empire in retaliation to past raids and incursions made by Arab nomads into Sasanian territory. Shapur II was successful in his campaign and established rule over the Persian Gulf. | Asia |
| Aksumite-Persian Wars | | 6th | 570 | 578 | The Aksumite-Persian Wars took place between 570 and 578. The Sasanian Empire of Persia and Aksumite Empire of Ethiopia went to war over the Himyarite Kingdom in Southern Arabia, present-day Yemen. The war began when the brother of the Aksumite ruler of the Aksumite-annexed Himyarite Kingdom revolted and appealed to the Sasanian Emperor, Khosrow I, for help. The Sasanians sent an expedition of Persian forces who successfully conquered Yemen. However, the Ethiopians revolted against the new leadership and the Sasanians sent another round of forces to take control of the region. | Asia |
| Sasanian Civil War of 628-632 | Sasanian Interregnum | 7th | 628 | 632 | The Sasanian Civil War of 628-632, also known as the Sasanian Interregnum, was a war of succession between nobles of different factions after the Sasanian king Khosrow II was overthrown by feudal families earlier in the year. The King’s son, Kavad II, murdered his brothers and father to secure his reign. This led to a civil war reigniting hostility between the Parsig and Pahlav factions. The war ended when the two factions agreed to install Khosrow II’s grandson, Yazdegerd III, as king, in order to save the empire that had been heavily weakened by war. | Asia |
| Urtatagai Conflict | | 20th | 27 November 1925 | 15 August 1926 | The Urtatagai Conflict of 1925-1926 arose from a territorial dispute between the Soviet Union and the Emirate of Afghanistan over control of the island of Urtatagai on the Amu Darya River. Afghanistan had claimed the island since 1900, despite it being under Russian control. With anti-Soviet Muslim Basmachi rebels using the island as a base, Soviet troops attacked, drawing international attention. Finally, due to mounting international public support for the Afghan government, the Soviet leadership agreed to officially recognise Urtatagai as part of Afghanistan on 15 August 1926. | Asia |
| War in Abkhazia of 1992-1993 | Patriotic War of the People of Abkhazia | 20th | 14 August 1992 | 27 September 1993 | The War in Abkahzia, or the Patriotic War of the People of Abkhazia, was fought between the Georgian government forces on the one hand and Abkhaz separatist forces, Russian government forces and North Caucasian militants on the other. Violent guerrilla warfare resulted in the displacement of over 250,000 Georgians, many of whom became refugees. A UN-led fact-finding mission documented widespread and severe human rights abuses perpetrated by both Abkhazians and Georgians and indicated around 5,000 ethnic Georgians and 4,000 Abkhazians were either killed or reported missing. | Asia |
| First Chechen War | First Chechen Campaign | 20th | 11 December 1994 | 31 August 1996 | The First Chechen War, or the First Chechen Campaign, was a war of independence initiated by the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria against the Russian Federation. The conflict culminated in the bloody Battle of Grozny where Russian federal forces won some control over the Chechnya region. However, despite its considerable military strength, Russia encountered fierce resistance from Chechen guerrillas. In 1996 Russia declared a ceasefire and a peace treaty was signed in 1997. Human rights groups claim 80,000-100,000 civilians were killed and over 500,000 displaced. | Asia |
| Russia-Chechnya Peace Treaty of 1997 | Moscow Peace Treaty of 1997 | 20th | 12 May 1997 | | The Russia-Chechnya Peace Treaty of 1997, commonly referred to as the Moscow Peace Treaty, was a formal agreement between Russia and Chechnya. The Treaty aimed to establish peace and define the principles of Russian-Chechen relations following the First Chechen War of 1994-1996, which had left at least 80,000 people dead across its 20-month run. Although the treaty was celebrated in Chechnya, the key issue of independence was not resolved and in 1999 Moscow nullified the treaty and invaded the Chechen republic again. | Asia |
| Second Chechen War | Second Chechen Campaign | 20th, 21st | 7 August 1999 | 16 April 2009 | The Second Chechen War, also called the Second Chechen Campaign, was a war between Russia and the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. The First Chechen War had strengthened Chechnya's ambition to declare independence from Russia, and in taking over from Boris Yeltsin in 1999, it was Vladimir Putin who initiated this Second Chechen War in response to bombings by Chechen militants. The conflict involved intense fighting, significant casualties and widespread destruction in Chechnya. The civilian population suffered immense human rights abuses, forced disappearances and displacement. | Asia |
| 1988 Geneva Accords | | 20th | 14 April 1988 | | The 1988 Geneva Accords, also formally called the Agreements on the Settlement of the Situation Relating to Afghanistan, were a set of agreements aimed at resolving the situation between the Soviet Union and Afghanistan, signed at the United Nations headquarters in Geneva. The accords were signed by Afghanistan and Pakistan, with the United States and Soviet Union acting as guarantors. It included agreements that marked the end of the nine-year-long Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and of the Soviet-Afghan War, as well as the voluntary return of Afghan refugees from Pakistan. | Asia |
| Tajik Peace Accord | | 20th | 27 June 1997 | | The General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan, or The Tajik Peace Accord, is an agreement that brought an end to the Tajikistani Civil War, which erupted in 1992 after the country's independence from the Soviet Union. The agreement aimed to establish a comprehensive framework for peace and stipulated a ceasefire and steps to demobilise and reintegrate combatants into society. It also promised 30% of Government positions to the United Tajik Opposition, which would have included the Islamic Renaissance Party, but this group has since been banned. | Asia |
| Bashkir Rebellion of 1662-1664 | Bashkir Uprising of 1662-1664 | 17th | 1662 | 1664 | The Bashkir Rebellion of 1662-1664, or Bashkir Uprising of 1662-1664, was a significant uprising of the Bashkir people that occurred in the region of Bashkortostan in the Tsardom of Russia. The rebellion was the first major insurrection by the Bashkirs, a Turkic ethnic group native to the region. The Bashkirs rebelled against being subjected to heavy taxation and exploitation by Russian authorities. The rebellion lasted for several years, with sporadic outbreaks of violence and resistance. Unable to defeat the rebels, the Tsarist government was forced to meet their basic requirements. | Asia |
| Bashkir Rebellion of 1704-1711 | Bashkir Uprising of 1704-1711 | 18th | 1704 | 1711 | The Bashkir Rebellion of 1704-1711, also called The Bashkir Uprising of 1704-1711, was one of the longest conflicts within the series of Bashkir rebellions in the Russian Empire. Russia’s gradual incorporation of Bashkiria into the Empire was met with persistent resistance by the Bashkir people fighting against colonial oppression. The rebellion ended in the defeat of the Bashkirs, although they won a few concessions around feudal taxes. The Russian Empire solidified its dominance, further integrating Bashkiria into the Russian administrative and legal systems. | Asia |
| Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca | | 18th | 21 July 1774 | | The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was a peace agreement signed between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire marking the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. Signed in Küçük Kaynarca in present-day Bulgaria, it covered several concessions granted to Russia. The treaty was a pivotal moment in the decline of the Ottoman Empire, as it ended their control over the Black Sea with Russia gaining control over territories including Crimea, Romania, and parts of modern-day Ukraine. It also allowed Russia to represent all Greek Orthodox Christian subjects in the Ottoman Empire. | Asia |
| 2012 Gorno-Badakhshan Clashes | | 21st | July 2012 | July 2012 | The 2012 Gorno-Badakhshan clashes were a series of violent incidents that occurred in the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan. The clashes erupted following the assassination of General Abdullo Nazarov, the regional security chief, by former warlord Tolib Ayyombekov. This led to a violent confrontation between Tajik security forces and local oppositional groups. The Tajik government responded with a large-scale military operation to regain control over the region and bring an end to days of intense fighting. Tensions remained high in the region for some time. | Asia |
| Mahtra War | | 19th | May 1858 | July 1858 | The Mahtra War was an armed conflict that took place in Estonia, which was then part of the Russian Empire. It is considered one of the earliest and most notable peasant uprisings in Estonian history. The war was a result of longstanding discontent among the Estonian peasantry, which faced harsh living conditions, heavy taxes, and feudal obligations enforced under Tsarist Russia during the 18th century. The war lasted for several weeks and the peasant forces were ultimately defeated by the Russian military. | Asia |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 | | 18th | 1768 | 1774 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 was an armed conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Russia's declaration of war was driven by a combination of geopolitical, territorial, and religious factors. It sought to expand its influence in the Black Sea region and secure access to warm-water ports, while the Ottoman Empire aimed to maintain its territories and protect its interests in Eastern Europe. It resulted in a series of victories for Russia and notable territorial wins in the Black Sea region, strengthening its influence in Eastern Europe. | Asia |
| Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky | | 16th | 15 January 1582 | | The Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky was a peace treaty between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. It contributed to ending the Livonian War, a conflict over control of the Livonia region, which covered large parts of present-day Estonia and Latvia. The Treaty established a ten-year truce between the two powers and while it was extended for another twenty years in 1600, it was then broken in 1605. The treaty had benefitted the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as it required Russia to renounce its claims to Livonia and Polotsk (a city in present-day Belarus). | Asia |
| Treaty of Plussa | Truce of Narva and Plusa | 16th | 10 August 1583 | | The Treaty of Plussa, also called the Truce of Narva and Plusa, was a peace agreement between Russia and Sweden. It was one of several treaties which ended the Livonian War and established a temporary cessation of hostilities between Russia and Sweden. Under the agreement, Sweden gained control over several territories in Livonia, including the important cities of Narva and Revel, present-day Tallinn. Russia retained control over the territories it had occupied during the war, as well as access to the Baltic Sea. In 1590, the truce expired and Russia resumed the war against Sweden. | Asia |
| Livonian War | | 16th | 1558 | 1583 | The Livonian War was a prolonged conflict in which Russia fought Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to gain control over Livonia, which covered present-day Estonia and Latvia. Russia, led by Tsar Ivan The Terrible, was unsuccessful at gaining control of the Baltic Sea and had to renounce its claims to Livonia. The Livonian War can be seen as part of the larger struggle for dominance in the Baltic region, with Russia, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania all seeking to secure their positions and Livonia being caught in a tug-of-war between the various powers. | Asia |
| Koliivshchyna Rebellion | | 18th | June 1768 | June 1769 | The Koliivshchyna Rebellion was a major rebellion led by haidamaky, which were Ukrainian paramilitary groups composed of Ukrainian Cossacks and peasants. It was fuelled by a combination of factors, including the oppression of Orthodox believers by the Polish Roman Catholic church and the influx of Russian money sent to Ukraine to support the Polish-dominated nobility, who were seen by the haidamaky as oppressors and enforcers of serfdom. Entire communities of national minorities were decimated in the areas affected by the uprising, with up to 200,000 deaths estimated. | Asia |
| Bashkir Rebellion of 1735-1740 | Fourth Bashkir Rebellion | 18th | July 1735 | 1740 | The Bashkir Rebellion of 1735-1740, also called the Fourth Bashkir Rebellion, was fought between the Russian Empire and Bashkir rebels. It involved numerous heavy clashes but was ultimately quelled by Russian forces. From an estimated population of 100,000, the Bashkirs suffered around 30,000 deaths and roughly 1200 villages were destroyed. The aftermath of the rebellion also saw the establishment of the fortress city of Orenburg, a Russian administrative centre close to Kazakhstan. The rebellion delayed Russia's progress with further expansion into Central Asia. | Asia |
| Treaty of Saint Petersburg | | 18th | 23 September 1723 | | The Treaty of Saint Petersburg was a peace treaty that marked the end of the Russo-Persian War of 1722-1723 between the Russian Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia (present-day Iran). This treaty confirmed Persia's forced surrender of various territories, including much of the Caucasus and mainland Northern Iran, including Derbent in Dagestan, Baku, the surrounding lands of Shirvan, as well as the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran, and Astarabad. Additionally, the treaty stipulated that the Persian king would receive Russian troops for internal peacekeeping purposes. | Asia |
| Treaty of Resht | | 18th | 21 January 1732 | | The Treaty of Resht marked an agreement between the Russian Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia. This treaty was concluded in Rasht, in present-day Iran, and had significant implications for the territorial claims and trade relations between the two powers. In the treaty, Russia renounced its territorial claims to Persian areas located south of the Kura River. This included the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran, and Astarabad, which had been previously conquered by Peter the Great in the early 1720s. As part of the treaty, these provinces were to be returned to Persia. | Asia |
| Treaty of Ganja | | 18th | 10 March 1735 | | The Treaty of Ganja was a peace treaty signed between the Russian Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia. It established a defensive alliance between Russia and the Persian Empire against their common adversary, the Ottoman Empire. As part of the agreement, the Russian government agreed to return the remaining territories in the Caucasus, which had been captured during the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723). The treaty provided Russia with a diplomatic advantage over the Ottoman Empire, and respite for the Safavid ruler Nader Shah on the western frontier of his empire. | Asia |
| 1717-1847 Kazakh-Russian Conflicts | | 18th, 19th | 1717 | 1847 | The 1717-1847 Kazakh-Russian conflicts were a prolonged series of conflicts between the Kazakhs and the Russian Empire. They arose primarily due to the expansionist ambitions of the Russian Empire and its desire to exert control over the vast Kazakh territories. The Russian Empire established its presence in the Kazakh Steppe by building forts and soon sought to exert greater control and dominance over the Kazakh nomadic tribes. These conflicts shaped the socio-political landscape of the region and influenced the subsequent relationship between the Kazakhs and the Russian Empire. | Asia |
| Pugachev's Rebellion | Peasants' War of 1773-1775 | 18th | 1773 | 1775 | Pugachev's Rebellion, also called the Peasants' War of 1773-1775, was the main revolt in a series of uprisings in the Russian Empire following Empress Catherine the Great's assumption of power in 1762. It was an organised insurrection led by Yemelyan Pugachev, a disenchanted former lieutenant of the Imperial Russian Army, who was keen to abolish serfdom and was initially successful in winning control and territory. However, he was captured and executed in 1775. His story has lived on in legends and literary works, including Pushkin's historical novel, The Captain's Daughter (1836). | Asia |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 | Catherine the Great's Second Turkish War | 18th | 19 August 1787 | 9 January 1792 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792, also called Catherine the Great's Second Turkish War, was part of the ongoing conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The war was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottomans to reclaim territories lost to Russia during the previous Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. As a result of the conflict, Russia gained full control over Crimea as well as over the lower Dniester and Danube rivers. Catherine the Great also founded the city Odesa in 1794, in present-day Ukraine, which gave Russia more control in the Black Sea region. | Europe |
| Treaty of Jassy | | 18th | 9 January 1792 | | The Treaty of Jassy was a treaty signed between the Russian and Ottoman Empires. It marked the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and solidified Russia's growing influence and dominance in the Black Sea region. The treaty officially recognised the Russian Empire's annexation of the Crimean Khanate, which covered the Crimea area. Additionally, the treaty transferred the territory of Yedisan, situated between the Dniester and Bug rivers, to Russia, thus advancing the Russian border with Europe to the Dniester River. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743 | Hats' Russian War | 18th | 8 August 1741 | 18 August 1743 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743, also known as the Hats' Russian War, was a conflict initiated by the Hats, a political party in Sweden that sought to reclaim territories lost to Russia during the Great Northern War. The war was also influenced by French diplomacy, which sought to divert Russia's attention away from supporting its longstanding ally, the Habsburg monarchy, in the War of the Austrian Succession. The war proved to be disastrous for Sweden, as it suffered further territorial losses to Russia, intensifying Sweden's already weakened position in the region. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790 | Gustav III's Russian War in Sweden | 18th | June 1788 | 14 August 1790 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790, also known as Gustav III's Russian War in Sweden, was a conflict between Sweden and Russia. It was initiated by King Gustav III of Sweden, who had a plan to attack Saint Petersburg and orchestrate a coup to depose Russian Empress Catherine the Great. However, it did not come to fruition as Sweden failed to secure backing from Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Prussia. As a consequence, Denmark-Norway declared war on Sweden, but eventually, peace was achieved through diplomatic intervention by Great Britain and Prussia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Värälä | | 18th | 14 August 1790 | | The Treaty of Värälä, sometimes phonetically spelt as the Treaty of Wereloe, was signed between Russia and Sweden and concluded the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790. The treaty reinstated the borders as they were before the war. However, Russia's right to interfere with Swedish interior affairs gained through the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, was expressly revoked. Sweden, in turn, had to renounce its alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Overall, the Treaty of Värälä offered Russia more international prestige. | Europe |
| Treaty of Åbo | Treaty of Turku | 18th | 18 August 1743 | | The Treaty of Åbo, also known as the Treaty of Turku after the current Finnish name for the same city, was a peace treaty between the Russian Empire and Sweden to end the Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743. The terms of the treaty were advantageous for Russia, with Sweden ceding significant territories to Russia, including parts of Finland. The Kymijoki River became the new border between the two countries, moving the Russian frontier further into Europe. The treaty also secured Russia's access to the Baltic Sea and solidified its position as a dominant power in the region. | Europe |
| Treaty of Nystad | Peace of Uusikaupunki | 18th | 10 September 1721 | | The Treaty of Nystad, also known as the Peace of Uusikaupunki after the current Finnish name for the same city, was a treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire to end the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. The treaty transferred significant territories, with Russia being granted ownership over Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia) and over Ingria (parts of present-day Estonia and Russia),where Tsar Peter the Great began construction of the new capital St Petersburg. Sweden received parts of present-day Finland, but the treaty signified the end of its Baltic empire. | Europe |
| Great Northern War | Second Northern War | 18th | 1700 | 1721 | The Great Northern War, also called the Second Northern War, was a conflict that involved Russia, Denmark-Norway, Saxony-Poland, and Sweden, with the goal of challenging Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region. The alliance of Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland found support from the British Empire and various pre-German states, while Sweden was supported by the Ottoman Empire. The war was partly about control of the Baltic Sea, and its outcomes marked a significant power shift, with Russia establishing St Petersburg and emerging as a major new power in the Baltic area. | Europe |
| Polish-Russian War of 1792 | War of the Second Partition | 18th | 18 May 1792 | 27 July 1792 | The Polish-Russian War of 1792, also known as the War of the Second Partition and in Polish as the War in Defence of the Constitution, was waged between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Targowica Confederation, a group of Polish-Lithuanian nobility backed by the Russian Empire. It unfolded in Lithuania and present-day Ukraine. In both regions, the Polish forces eventually withdrew in the face of the superior Russian military strength. The war ended when the Polish King asked for a ceasefire. It resulted in a Russian victory, and the Second Partition of Poland. | Europe/Asia |
| Truce of Andrusovo | | 17th | 9 February 1667 | | The Truce of Andrusovo was signed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to bring an end to their hostilities. It marked a significant turning point in the Russo-Polish conflict that had been raging since 1654, fought over the territories of present-day Ukraine and Belarus. The truce lasted for thirteen and a half years and while it did not bring a definitive end to the dispute, it provided a temporary respite from the fighting and paved the way for future negotiations and treaties between the two powers. | Asia |
| Treaty of Bakhchisarai | Treaty of Radzin | 17th | 3 January 1681 | | The Treaty of Bakhchisarai, also known as the Treaty of Radzin, was a treaty signed between the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, marking the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1676-1681. The treaty established a twenty-year truce and designated the Dnieper River as the boundary between the Ottoman Empire and Moscow's territory. It resulted in the territorial reallocation among neighbouring states and held significant international importance by including provisions for the signing of the Treaty of Eternal Peace between Russia and Poland in 1686. | Asia |
| Treaty of Constantinople of 1700 | Treaty of Istanbul of 1700 | 18th | 13 July 1700 | | The Treaty of Constantinople of 1700, also called the Treaty of Istanbul of 1700, was an agreement between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire marking the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1686-1700. Russian Tsar Peter the Great secured control over the Azov region, allowing his forces to focus on the Great Northern War. The treaty established a truce lasting thirty years, with the Ottoman Empire recognising Russia's possession of the Azov area and its fortresses. Russia relinquished its claims to the Kerch Strait and demilitarised zones were designated along the Dnieper River. | Asia |
| Treaty of Perpetual Peace of 1686 | Eternal Peace of 1686 | 17th | 16 May 1686 | | The Treaty of Perpetual Peace of 1686, also known as the Eternal Peace of 1686, was signed in Moscow between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It divided Ukraine, with Russia gaining left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv, while Poland retained right-bank Ukraine and was paid 146,000 roubles as compensation. The treaty confirmed the terms of the earlier Truce of Andrusovo from 1667. By signing the treaty, Russia also joined the anti-Turkish Holy League coalition that included the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice. | Asia |
| Treaty of Lyubutsk | | 14th | 1372 | | The Treaty of Lyubutsk was signed between Lithuania and the Duchy of Moscow and marked the end of the Lithuanian-Muscovite War (1368-1372),establishing a seven-year period of peace. The war had been the result of clashes between the interests of Lithuania and the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Under the treaty, Lithuania abandoned its plans to further its eastward expansion into Slavic lands and the peace lasted for seven years until Algirdas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania who had signed the treaty, died, and his son allied with Moscow against the new Grand Duke. | Asia/Europe |
| Khasavyurt Accord | | 20th | 30 August 1996 | | The Khasavyurt Accord, or Khasavyurt Joint Declaration and Principles for Mutual Relations, was a peace agreement between the Chechen Republic and Russia that ended the First Chechen War. It aimed to establish a ceasefire and resolve the conflict that had ravaged Chechnya for over two years. It included the withdrawal of Russian forces from Chechen territory, the disarmament of Chechen armed groups, and the establishment of a political dialogue between Russia and Chechnya. It led to the Moscow Peace Treaty in 1997, however Russia nullified that in 1999 and invaded Chechnya again. | Asia |
| Lithuanian-Muscovite War of 1368-1372 | Litovschina | 14th | 17 January 1368 | 12 December 1372 | The Lithuanian-Muscovite War, also known as Litovschina in Russia, were a series of military raids by Algirdas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, against the Grand Duchy of Moscow. They were undertaken to support the Principality of Tver, a rival of Moscow. During the conflict, the Lithuanian forces besieged Moscow and caused significant damage but were unable to capture the Kremlin, the main stronghold of Moscow. In 1372, the Treaty of Lyubutsk was signed to resolve the conflict. In it, the Lithuanians agreed to end their support for Tver, which was subsequently defeated in 1375. | Asia |
| Treaty of Paris of 1801 | | 19th | 8 October 1801 | | The Treaty of Paris of 1801 brought an end to the hostilities between France and Russia during the War of the Second Coalition, a European war against revolutionary France. The treaty was followed by a secret convention of alliance. The public peace treaty emphasised perpetual peace and friendship, while the secret convention outlined the future relationship between the two nations. The peace treaty with Russia was part of a broader diplomatic effort to end the War of the Second Coalition which marked a significant step in bringing peace and stability to Europe after years of conflict. | Europe |
| Treaties of Tilsit | Franco-Russian Treaty of 1807 | 19th | 7 July 1807 | | The Treaties of Tilsit were a pair of treaties signed by Napoleon Bonaparte. The first, also called the Franco-Russian Treaty of 1807, was between the French and Russian Empires and the second was signed with Prussia. The treaties marked the end of the war between the Russian and French Empires, initiating an alliance between the two, weakening the power of the other European nations. Included were secret clauses in which France pledged to support Russia against the Ottoman Empire, and Russia agreed to join the Continental System imposed by Napoleon against the British Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Valiesar | | 17th | 20 December 1658 | | The Treaty of Valiesar was signed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire. It marked the end of the Russo-Swedish theatre of the Second Northern War. Under the terms, Russia was granted temporary possession of the Livonian territories it had conquered (located in present-day Estonia and Latvia). However, the continued war between Russia and Poland put Russia in a weakened military position and it could not afford to engage in a new conflict with Sweden. Consequently, the Treaty of Cardis was signed, obliging Russia to relinquish its Livonian and Ingrian conquests to Sweden. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cardis | | 17th | 1661 | | The Treaty of Cardis was a peace treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire, which brought an end to the Russo-Swedish War (1656-1658). Under the terms of the treaty, Russia agreed to surrender all the territories it had captured during the war to Sweden. Additionally, all the vessels that were constructed at Kokenhausen (the present-day Latvian Koknese) for the Russian siege of Riga were destroyed. Overall, the Treaty of Cardis upheld the territorial agreements previously established in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617. | Europe |
| Bolotnikov Rebellion | | 17th | 1606 | 1607 | The Bolotnikov Rebellion, known in Russia as the Peasant War under the Leadership of Ivan Bolotnikov, took place during the Time of Troubles in Russia, a period of political and social crisis from 1598 to 1613, following the death of Tsar Feodor I. Ivan Bolotnikov was a Cossack from the Don region and led this large-scale rebellion to bring attention to the widespread dissatisfaction among peasants, Cossacks and nobles. The rebellion marked the deep social divisions and grievances within Russian society and the difficulties the ruling elite faced in maintaining control and stability. | Asia |
| Treaty of Vilna | Truce of Niemieża | 17th | 3 November 1656 | | The Treaty of Vilna, also known as the Truce of Niemieża, was a peace agreement between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It aimed to introduce a temporary truce between the two powers during the Russo-Polish War (1654-1667). It included a commitment from Russia to cease hostilities with Poland-Lithuania and join forces to build an anti-Swedish alliance during the ongoing Second Northern War. In return, Poland-Lithuania agreed to promise that Tsar Alexis of Russia would succeed John II Casimir Vasa as the ruler of Poland upon his death. | Europe |
| Russo-Persian War of 1794 | | 18th | April 1796 | November 1796 | The Persian Expedition of Catherine the Great in 1796, also called the Russo-Persian War of 1796, was part of the Russo-Persian Wars during the 18th century. The war was sparked by Russian Empress Catherine the Great, who sought to strengthen her influence over the fragmented territories in the Caucasus region, some of which were historically part of Persia. Although Catherine the Great's various efforts to consolidate control over the Caucasus were significant during her reign, they did not result in any substantial long-term changes for either Russia or Persia. | Asia |
| Russian Civil War | | 20th | 7 November 1917 | 16 June 1923 | The Russian Civil War was a major conflict that took place in Russia in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. It was fought between the Bolshevik Red Army ('the Reds') against a coalition of anti-Bolshevik groups ('the Whites'). The war resulted in the formation of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. It had a devastating impact on the Russian population. It is believed that 300,000 deaths were directly related to the war and executions, while up to 450,000 deaths were caused by diseases and other war-related factors. | Asia |
| War of the Fourth Coalition | | 19th | 9 October 1806 | 9 July 1807 | The War of the Fourth Coalition was fought between the French Empire and the Fourth Coalition, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Saxony, Sweden and the UK. It resulted in the defeat of the Russian army and a decisive victory for the French. It demonstrated Napoleon's military prowess and further solidified his position as a dominant force in Europe. The outcome of the battle compelled Russia to seek peace negotiations with France through the Treaty of Tilsit. This conflict holds historical significance as a major event in the Napoleonic Wars, showcasing Napoleon's military genius. | Asia |
| Latvian War of Independence | Latvian War of Liberation | 20th | 5 December 1918 | 11 August 1920 | The Latvian War of Independence, also called the Latvian War of Liberation, was a series of military conflicts that began when Soviet Russia invaded the newly proclaimed Republic of Latvia. Throughout the war, the Latvian forces received support from various foreign powers, including Estonia, Poland, and the United Kingdom. The war was characterised by intense fighting, guerrilla warfare, and shifting alliances. Ultimately, the war resulted in the establishment of the independent Republic of Latvia and the recognition of its sovereignty by Soviet Russia in the Riga Peace Treaty. | Europe |
| Guerrilla War in the Baltics | | 20th | 1944 | 1956 | The Guerrilla War in the Baltics was a protracted rebellion by partisans from the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) against Soviet expansion, both during and after World War II. The war continued for over a decade, with varying degrees of intensity in different periods and regions. The casualties through combat are estimated at 30,000, but it is estimated that 500,000 died once deported to Stalin’s Gulag prison camps. The legacy of the partisans, who called themselves the Forest Brothers, and their fight for independence remains significant in the Baltic states. | Europe |
| Bulavin Rebellion | Astrakhan Revolt | 18th | 8 October 1707 | 7 July 1708 | The Bulavin Rebellion, or Astrakhan Revolt, was a war between the Tsardom of Russia and the Cossacks from the Don river region in the south. At the time, the Don Cossacks enjoyed a degree of autonomy and self-governance in Russia, attracting many peasants fleeing from serfdom. However, Peter the Great sought to centralise state authority and abolished Slavic customs, which triggered fierce resistance to the Tsar's forces and the preservation of Cossack customs and traditions. The rebellion was led by Kondraty Bulavin, and ended when he died in 1708. | Asia |
| Caucasian War | Caucasus War | 19th | 1817 | 21 May 1864 | The Caucasian War, also known as the Caucasus War, was a significant military conflict between the Russian Empire and various indigenous peoples of the North Caucasus. The war arose as a result of the Russian Empire's efforts to expand its control and establish dominance over the region, which was strategically important due to its key geographical position between Europe and Asia, valuable resources and trade routes. The war lasted for several decades, and in addition to heavy military losses, 1.2 million civilian lives were lost through violence, genocide, and displacement. | Asia |
| East Prigorodny Conflict | Ossetian-Ingush Conflict | 20th | 30 October 1992 | 6 November 1992 | The East Prigorodny Conflict, also called the Ossetian-Ingush Conflict, was an inter-ethnic conflict in the Prigorodny District in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, a federal subject of Russia. The roots of the conflict can be traced back to the occupation of the originally Ingush region by Ossetian forces throughout the 19th century, as well as the 1944 Stalinist deportation of most Ingush peoples from the region to Central Asia and the Caucasus, to make space for Ossetian settlers. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to an armed and bloody revolt by Ingush nationalists in 1992. | Asia |
| Bezdna Peasant Revolt | Bezdna Unrest | 19th | 12 April 1861 | 12 April 1861 | The Bezdna Peasant Revolt, also known as the Bezdna Unrest, was an uprising that occurred in the Spassky region of the Kazan Governorate in Russia, following the 1861 Russian Emancipation Reform. The unrest was triggered by the misinterpretation of the new reforms, with the former serf peasants claiming more freedom than their landlords were giving them. The revolt gained momentum quickly, and came to a violent head on 12 April 1861, when the authorities sent military troops to suppress the revolt, made 100-300 casualties, and arrested the rebel leader, Anton Petrov. | Asia |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812 | Alexander I's Turkish War | 19th | 22 December 1806 | 28 May 1812 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, also known as Alexander I's Turkish War, was a military conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, and one in a longer list of Russo-Ottoman Wars that took place over several centuries. The war unfolded in reaction to growing concerns about the expansionist ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte across Europe. Both empires wanted to reassert their influence across the continent. In 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed to end the Russo-Turkish War, 13 days before Napoleon began his invasion of Russia. | Asia |
| Anglo-Russian War of 1807–1812 | | 19th | 2 September 1807 | 18 July 1812 | The Anglo-Russian War of 1807–1812 was a period of hostilities between Great Britain and Russia. It was prompted by Russia's signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, which ended its war with France but forced Russia to cease maritime trade with Britain, which hurt the British economy. The war consisted largely of trade sanctions and diplomatic barriers, rather than violence, and was overshadowed by the larger conflict between France and Britain during the Napoleonic wars. The war mainly highlighted the shifting alliances and complexities of the Napoleonic era. | Europe |
| Treaty of Örebro | | 19th | 18 July 1812 | | The Treaty of Örebro, also called the Treaty of Peace, Union, and Friendship between His Britannic Majesty and the Emperor of all the Russias, marked the end of the Anglo-Russian War that had been ongoing since 1807. The treaty was joined to a second treaty between Sweden and Great Britain, ending the Anglo-Swedish War of 1810-1812. While neither wars had seen much military action, the two treaties aimed to establish a commitment to peace, friendship, and cooperation between the nations involved, as well as the restoration of territories that had been occupied during the wars. | Europe |
| French Invasion of Russia | Patriotic War of 1812 | 19th | 24 June 1812 | 14 December 1812 | The French Invasion of Russia, or the Patriotic War of 1812, was a military campaign launched by Napoleon Bonaparte during the Napoleonic Wars to compel the Russian Empire to adhere to the continental blockade against the United Kingdom. This invasion of Russia is widely regarded as one of the most significant and also lethal military campaigns in history, costing almost 1 million lives in under 6 months. It stands out for its scale, strategic complexity, and the catastrophic outcome for the invading French forces. It is extensively studied due to its profound impact on European history. | Europe |
| Decembrist Revolt | Nicholas I's Turkish War | 19th | 26 December 1825 | | The Decembrist Revolt was a revolt in response to the sudden death of Tsar Alexander I, led by military officers in the Russian aristocracy. The Decembrists were influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment spreading across Europe during that time and sought to establish a constitutional monarchy and bring about political reforms in Russia. The insurrection was poorly organised and easily suppressed, but the Decembrist Revolt had a significant impact on Russian society and politics as one of the first organised attempts to challenge the autocratic rule of the Tsar in Russia. | Asia |
| November Uprising | Polish-Russian War | 19th | 29 November 1830 | 21 October 1831 | The November Uprising, also known as the Polish-Russian War of 1830-1831, was an armed rebellion that took place in the territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were under Russian control after the partition of Poland at the end of the 18th century. It was fuelled by a desire to regain Polish independence and remains an important chapter in the history of Poland's fight for sovereignty. Even though the Imperial Russian Army eventually defeated the Polish rebels, the fierce resistance became a symbol of Polish national struggle against foreign domination. | Europe/Asia |
| 1841 Rebellion in Guria | | 19th | May 1841 | September 1841 | The 1841 Rebellion in Guria was a conflict that occurred in the Georgian territories of the Russian Empire. It was sparked by the introduction of new taxes and duties imposed on the Georgian peasants by the imperial government, who had support from the local nobility. After initial success for the peasants, the Imperial Russian Army eventually defeated the rebels. However, the rebellion stands as an important episode in the history of Georgia's struggle for self-determination and its resistance against external control and economic oppression. | Europe/Asia |
| Russian Revolution of 1905 | First Russian Revolution | 20th | 22 January 1905 | 16 June 1907 | The Russian Revolution of 1905, also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a period of mass political and social unrest across the Russian Empire. The revolution was notable for the Bloody Sunday massacre, when the Imperial Guard fired at peaceful demonstrators in St. Petersburg, resulting in hundreds of deaths. The uprising finally led to the introduction of a Russian Constitution and a multi-party system, even if significant power remained with Tsar Nicholas II. It also foreshadowed the upheavals that would ultimately lead to the downfall of the Tsarist regime in 1917. | Asia |
| February Revolution | February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution | 20th | 8 March 1917 | 16 March 1917 | The February Revolution, also called the February Bourgeois Democratic Revolution by the Soviets, was one of two revolutions that occurred in Russia in 1917. The revolution began in Petrograd (present-day St. Petersburg) when a series of protests erupted in response to food shortages, high prices, and discontent with the ongoing WWI. The February Revolution paved the way for the October Revolution later that year, when the Bolsheviks successfully seized power and established a socialist government, leading to the end of the Romanov dynasty and the collapse of the Russian Empire. | Asia |
| Red Army Invasion of Georgia | Georgian-Soviet War | 20th | 12 February 1921 | 17 March 1921 | The Red Army Invasion of Georgia, also known as the Soviet-Georgian War, was a military campaign launched by the Russian Red Army with the aim of overthrowing the government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. They established a Bolshevik regime led by the Communist Party of Georgia. The conflict was a result of both expansionist policies pursued by the Soviet Union and the revolutionary efforts of Georgian Bolsheviks who sought external intervention to seize power. The subsequent Sovietisation of Georgia resulted in decades of Soviet rule until Georgia’s independence in 1991. | Europe/Asia |
| August Uprising | | 20th | 28 August 1924 | 5 September 1924 | The August Uprising was an insurrection against Soviet rule in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. The uprising was an attempt by various anti-Soviet forces to overthrow the Soviet regime and restore Georgia's independence. The uprising was violently repressed by the Soviet authorities and for years they continued to target those believed to be associated with the rebellion through purges and mass deportations. The uprising was a taboo theme during Soviet rule, but nevertheless remained a significant symbol of resistance against Soviet rule in Georgian history. | Europe/Asia |
| Winter War | | 20th | 30 November 1939 | 13 March 1940 | The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland, launched by the Soviet Union with an invasion of Finland after the outbreak of WWII. The League of Nations condemned the Soviet Union's aggression and deemed it illegal, subsequently expelling the Soviet Union from their membership. Over three months the Soviet Union dominated with tanks and airplanes, but also suffered significant losses. The war ended with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which forced Finland to cede some territories to the Soviet Union but allowed it to maintain its independence. | Europe |
| Cold War | | 20th | 12 March 1947 | 26 December 1991 | The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension that lasted from the end of WWII until the early 1990s. It primarily involved the US and the Soviet Union, along with their allies. The Cold War saw the absence of direct military confrontation between the superpowers, as they instead engaged in indirect conflicts through proxy wars in different parts of the world. The war was driven by ideological and geopolitical differences, as both sides sought to exert their influence and promote their respective political systems globally. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union. | Europe/Asia/North America |
| Russo-Kazan Wars | | 15th, 16th | 1437 | 1552 | The Russo-Kazan Wars were a series of conflicts between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Khanate of Kazan. These wars spanned over a century and were first led by Russian Tsars Ivan III and Vasily III, after which Kazan was ultimately conquered by Tsar Ivan IV, better known as Ivan the Terrible. The wars were marked by fierce military campaigns and sieges as the Russian forces sought to expand their territory and influence in the region. The capture of Kazan in 1552 marked a significant milestone in the consolidation of Russian power and the expansion of the Russian Empire. | Europe/Asia |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1554-1557 | | 16th | 1554 | 1554–1557 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1554-1557 was a conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden. It is often seen as a precursor to the larger Livonian War that followed. The war originated from border clashes and territorial disputes between the two powers. The hostilities came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Novgorod, which established a truce between Russia and Sweden. The treaty helped temporarily stabilise the situation and provided a brief period of peace before the outbreak of the Livonian War in 1558. | Europe |
| October Revolution | Bolshevik Revolution | 20th | 6 November 1917 | 7 November 1917 | The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a pivotal event during the Russian Revolution of 1917-1923 in which the communist Bolshevik party came to power in Russia. Led by Vladimir Lenin, an armed insurrection took place in Petrograd, present-day Saint Petersburg, resulting in the overthrow of the Provisional Government that had been in place since the February Revolution's collapse of Tsarist autocracy. The October Revolution served as a catalyst for the Russian Civil War, a major conflict that ensued between the Bolsheviks and various opposing forces. | Asia |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1568-1570 | Astrakhan Expedition | 16th | 1568 | 1570 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1568–1570, called the Astrakhan Expedition in Ottoman sources, was a conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The war was primarily fought over control of the Astrakhan Khanate, which had been previously conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1556 and this had allowed him to build a new fortress overlooking the Volga River. The Ottoman side suffered heavy losses, as their fleet was destroyed and many soldiers froze to death in the steppes. The war was the first in a series of twelve Russo-Turkish conflicts across the following four centuries. | Asia |
| Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667 | | 17th | 1654 | 1667 | The Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667, or the Thirteen Years' War, was a significant conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1655 and 1660, Sweden additionally invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving the nation with a weak economy and unable to fund further fighting. The war resulted in extensive Russian territorial gains and political changes which marked the beginning of the rise of Russia as a great power in Eastern Europe and left the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth unable to prevent the future Partitions of Poland. | Europe |
| Ottoman-Persian War of 1821-1823 | Turko-Iranian War | 19th | 10 September 1821 | 23 July 1823 | The Ottoman-Persian War of 1821-1823, also known as the Turko-Iranian War, took place from 10 September 1821 to 23 July 1823. It was one of a series of wars between Qajar Iran and the Ottoman Empire. War was triggered when the Ottomans gave shelter to rebel tribes of Iran’s Azerbaijan Province. Russia allied with Iran to initiate the war with the aim of weakening the Ottomans in the Greek Revolution. Iranian forces invaded Ottoman territory, to which the Ottomans responded with an attempt at a counter-invasion of Iranian territory. The Ottomans were eventually defeated in the Battle of Erzurum, which marked the end of the war. | Asia |
| 2022 Kyrgyz-Tajik Clashes | | 21st | 27 January 2022 | 20 September 2022 | The 2022 Kyrgyz-Tajik clashes refer to a series of five border clashes that took place from 27 January 2022 to 20 September 2022 on the Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan border. The conflict followed the 2021 clashes, which sources report started due to a water dispute between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and the installation of surveillance cameras near the Kyrgyzstan-Tajikistan border. Tensions resurfaced in January 2022, initiated by Kyrgyzstan due to a roadblock in Kyrgyzstan by Tajik citizens. Both sides stated that negotiations would resolve the border conflict, and a peace deal was agreed on 20 September 2022. | Asia |
| Russo-Georgian War | Five-Day War | 21st | 7 August 2008 | 12 August 2008 | The Russo-Georgian War, also known as the Five-Day War, began on 7 August 2008 between Georgia and Russian-backed South Ossetia and Abkhazia when a diplomatic crisis between Russia and Georgia was declared and Russian-backed South Ossetian forces attacked Georgian villages. The war was rooted in the South Ossetian and Abkhazian separatist conflicts in Georgia that had occurred since Georgia left the Soviet Union in 1991. Georgia sent armed forces aiming to end the attacks, while Russia sent troops supporting Abkhazia and South Ossetia in attacking Georgia. A ceasefire was agreed on 12 August 2008. | Asia |
| Katoch-Sikh War | | 19th | 1801 | 1801 | The Katoch-Sikh War took place between 1801 to 1804 in Bajwara, Hoshiarpur, in the present-day district of the Punjab in northern India. The war was fought between Sikh and Katoch forces when Raja Sansar Chand Katoch of the Kangra State aimed to expand his influence into neighbouring territories. Sansar Chand entered Sikh leader Sada Kaur’s territories and continued to advance into Bajwara where he built a fort. In retaliation, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire in 1804 led armed forces that drove Sansar Chand from Sikh territory. | Asia |
| 1837 Poonch Revolt | | 19th | 1837 | 1837 | The 1837 Poonch Revolt, also known as the 1837 Poonch Rebellion, took place in Poonch, present-day Poonch Division, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan when tribes of the Poonch state rebelled against the rule of Dhian Singh and Raja Gulab Singh of the Dogra dynasty of the Sikh Empire. Sardar Shams Khan, chief of the Sudhan tribe, had been a follower of Dhian Singh, but after the death of Hari Singh Nalwa, he led the Sudhan along with other tribes and Pahari-speaking people in an insurgency against the Sikhs. The Sikhs, led by Maharaja Gulab Singh, ultimately suppressed the rebellion and defeated the rebels. | Asia |
| India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship | | 20th | 31 July 1950 | | The India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed on 31 July 1950 in Kathmandu, Nepal by India and Nepal. The treaty was to establish a close relationship between the two parties, agreeing to respect and recognise each other’s sovereignty, integrity, and independence. Nepal’s Rana Regime and India were concerned about Communism in China after the invasion of Tibet. India responded by strengthening their Himalayan frontier policy through an alliance with Nepal. The treaty confirmed free movement of people and goods between the countries and set out a supportive agreement on defence and foreign policy. | Asia |
| Buraimi War | Buraimi Oasis Dispute | 20th | 28 January 1952 | 25 October 1955 | The Buraimi War, or the Buraimi Oasis Dispute, refers to a territorial dispute that took place from 28 January 1952 to 25 October 1955 between Saudi Arabia against the Sultan of Muscat and Oman and Abu Dhabi of the Trucial States, present-day United Arab Emirates over claims to the oil rich Buraimi Oasis. The Saudis, aiming to recapture Buraimi, advanced into the region. The Sultan of Muscat and Oman organised forces in response, but the British persuaded them not to attack. Oman, Aden, and a British-backed force blockaded Buraimi until a ceasefire was agreed. Buraimi was subsequently split between Oman and Abu Dhabi. | Asia |
| Mughal-Rajput War | | 16th, 17th, 18th | 1526 | 1779 | The Mughal-Maratha Wars, also known as the Deccan Wars, were fought between the Mughal Empire and the Maratha Empire between 1680 and 1707 following the death of the Maratha’s ruler Shivaji Maharaj. The wars were primarily over territorial dominance and were rooted in a history of friction between the Hindi Maratha Empire and Muslim Mughal Empire due to Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s taxation on non-Muslims and prior Maratha attacks on the Mughals. The Mughal Empire wanted to suppress the power of the Marathas and invaded the Deccan Peninsula where they were based. The wars ended when Aurangzeb died in 1707. | Asia |
| Syrian Peasant Revolt | | 19th | 1834 | 1835 | The Syrian Peasant Revolt began in 1834 and was led by local peasant classes against Egypt’s rule of Ottoman Syria in present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel. The resistance opposed Egypt’s rule due to conscription, taxation, disarmament orders and Ottoman loyalism. The uprising mainly occurred in Damascus Eyalet, Jerusalem, Nablus, Hebron, and Al-Karak, corresponding to areas in present-day Syria, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, and in Sidon Eyalet of present-day Israel and Lebanon. In 1835, Egypt’s troops suppressed the revolt. | Asia |
| Rajput War | Rathore War of Independence | 17th, 18th | 1679 | 1707 | The Rajput War, also known as the Rathore War of Independence, refers to a conflict between the Mughal Empire and the Rajputs of Marwar between 1679 and 1707. After the death of the Rathore ruler, the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, intervened in Marwar’s succession due to unpaid debts to the Mughals. The Marwar Rajputs resisted Aurangzeb’s plans but Aurangzeb seized Jodhpur, the capital of the Kingdom of Marwar, in present-day Rajasthan, India, and aimed to split Marwar in two. Conflict between the two sides ensued and following the death of Aurangzeb, the Rajputs evicted the Mughals from the region. | Asia |
| May Uprising | | 20th | 10 May 1920 | 14 May 1920 | The May Uprising took place between 10 to 14 May 1920 and was a coup d’état in the First Republic of Armenia. The Armenian Communist Party had been founded earlier in 1920 and was encouraged to stage a revolt after the Red Army Invasion of Azerbaijan and Bolshevik advances in the South Caucasus. The Armenian Bolsheviks led demonstrations that evolved into a revolt against the Armenian government, and they successfully took power in Alexandropol, Kars, and Sarikamiş. Armenian military units entered Alexandropol and suppressed the revolt and the government established control of Armenia. | Asia |
| 1974-1975 Shatt al-Arab Conflict | | 20th | April 1974 | March 1975 | The 1974-75 Shatt al-Arab Conflict began in April 1974 due to territorial disputes between Iran and Ba’athist Iraq over the Shatt al-Arab waterway and Iran’s support of Iraqi Kurdish guerrillas. Iran withdrew from an earlier treaty, which had ended disputes over the waterway, when their aims to negotiate a new treaty with Ba’athist Iraq were refused. Border skirmishes followed and Iraqi and Iranian military attacked one another, while Iran armed Kurdish separatists. The conflict ended in March 1975 when Iraq agreed to Iran’s status on the waterway and Iran stopped supporting Iraqi Kurds. | Asia |
| Andijan Massacre | | 21st | 13 May 2005 | 13 May 2005 | The Andijan Massacre took place on 13 May 2005 in Andijan, Uzbekistan. During the trial of 23 men charged with being Islamic extremists, demonstrations had been carried out. Supporters of the defendants broke into the prison where the men were held and occupied administrative buildings, took law enforcement and government officials hostage, and demanded that the president resign. Protests demanding an end to poverty and government corruption and repression ensued. In response, the Uzbek National Security Service launched a major attack on the protesters without warning. | Asia |
| Fergana Massacre | | 20th | 3 June 1989 | 12 June 1989 | The Fergana Massacre took place in the Fergana Valley of Soviet Uzbekistan from 3 to 12 June 1989. Riots had erupted between native Uzbeks and the Meskhetian Turks who had been exiled to Uzbekistan from their homeland of Akhaltsikhe, along the Georgia’s border with Turkey and corresponding to the Meskheti region in present-day Georgia. The riots developed into the massacre of the Meskhetian Turks and other minorities by Uzbek nationalist extremists. Many Meskhetian Turks were killed, injured, or fled, primarily to Azerbaijan. | Asia |
| 1990 Osh Riots | | 20th | 4 June 1990 | 6 June 1990 | The Osh Riots began on 4 June 1990 between Kyrgyz and Uzbek people in Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic, present-day Kyrgyzstan. Tensions had increased between the Osh government and Uzbek nationalists who had petitioned for greater representation and cultural freedom while Kyrgyz nationalists petitioned about redistributing privatised land. Both groups were angered by the authorities who distributed Uzbek land to the Kyrgyz. Violence between Kyrgyz and Uzbeks commenced in Lenin Kolkhoz and spread to Osh and Uzgen. The Soviet Army was called in and on 6 June 1990 the riots ended. | Asia |
| Rose Revolution | Revolution of Roses | 21st | 3 November 2003 | 23 November 2003 | The Rose Revolution, also known as the Revolution of Roses, took place in Georgia between 3 and 23 November 2003. Anti-government demonstrations led by the Georgian president’s former political allies began in Tbilisi, Georgia, in opposition to the Georgian government over economic issues, electoral fraud, corruption, and manipulation following the 2003 parliamentary elections. Foreign support for the Georgian president, Eduard Shevardnadze, had diminished prior to the revolution. The revolution spread and ultimately forced President Shevardnadze and the Citizens’ Union of Georgia to resign. | Asia |
| Ottoman-Persian War of 1743-1746 | | 18th | 1 November 1743 | 1 July 1746 | The Ottoman-Persian War of 1743-1746 was one of a series of wars between Iran and the Ottoman Empire that began after an earlier war had ended in a stalemate. Nader Shah, the Afsharid Iranian ruler, aimed to expand his empire and recapture Baghdad from the Ottomans. Nader Shah advanced into areas of present-day Iraq but retreated due to the Mosul Pasha’s defence and revolts in Persia. Ottoman forces helped Georgia to challenge Persian influence, the Battle of Kars between the Iranian and Ottoman army took place, and a revolt erupted in Persia. The war ended in a status quo ante bellum. | Asia |
| Mughal-Maratha Wars | Deccan Wars | 17th, 18th | 1680 | 1707 | The Mughal-Rajput Wars refer to a series of wars between the Rajput Confederacy and the Mughal Empire that took place from 1526 to 1779. The wars began when the Timurid ruler, Babur, who became the founder of the Mughal Empire, invaded north-western India. Babur aimed to conquer India and was inspired by Timur’s invasions of India in 1398. The Rajput Confederacy opposed Babur and threatened to fortify their control in northern India. Battles ensued over the following years until the Mughals accepted a peace treaty with the Rajput Rajas that agreed for the Rajputs to be made governors of Malwa, Sindh, and Gujarat. | Asia |
| War on ISIS | War Against the Islamic State | 21st | 13 June 2014 | January 2020 | The War on ISIS, or the War Against the Islamic State, refers to a United States-led coalition including Saudi Arabia and Jordan against the Islamic State, also known as ISIL and ISIS, and other jihadist groups in Syria and Iraq. The war began on 13 June 2014 following the United States-coalition forming a multinational military group aiming to support military operations, expose the nature of ISIS, and cut off their funding. The coalition and Iran led campaigns against ISIS, which claimed they were the caliphate, and had previously seized territory. By January 2020, Iraq and Syria had reclaimed ISIS-held areas. | Asia |
| 2021 Israel-Palestine Crisis | | 21st | 6 May 2021 | 21 May 2021 | The 2021 Israel-Palestine Crisis occurred between 6 and 21 May 2021. The crisis erupted when Palestinians protested Israeli authorities’ decision to evict Palestinian families in Sheikh Jarrah. After increasing tensions, Israeli troops used force on the protesters who also threw stones at them. Israeli forces stormed the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound and carried out violent and oppressive actions towards Palestinians. Hamas responded with rocket attacks into Israel and Israel responded with airstrikes into the Gaza Strip. The crisis ended with a ceasefire mediated by Egypt. | Asia |
| 2006 Israel-Gaza Conflict | Operation Summer Rains | 21st | 28 June 2006 | 26 November 2006 | The 2006 Israel-Gaza Conflict, also known as Operation Summer Rains, took place from 28 June to 26 November 2006 after Israel’s withdrawal from Gaza and the victory of Hamas in the 2006 Palestinian legislative election. The conflict was triggered when Palestinian militants captured an Israeli soldier. Hamas wanted Israel to release Palestinian prisoners, while Israel wanted to secure the Israeli soldier’s release and stop rocket-fire into Israel. Warfare between Palestinian militant groups and Israeli forces ensued after failed negotiations. The conflict ended with a ceasefire. | Asia |
| Jafar Sultan Revolt | | 20th | 1931 | 1931 | The Jafar Sultan Revolt occurred in 1931 when Kurdish tribes revolted against Pahlavi Iran in Iranian Kurdistan. The revolt was an early expression of Kurdish separatism in Iran and was led by Jafar Sultan of Hewraman, a region in the Kurdistan provinces of present-day western Iran and north-eastern Iraq. Jafar Sultan had controlled Marivan and Hewraman until 1925 when the Pahlavi dynasty of Iran controlled the region. In the Autumn of 1931, Kurdish rebels revolted, but their actions were suppressed. | Asia |
| Hama Rashid Revolt | | 20th | 1941 | 1944 | The Hama Rashid Revolt was a Kurdish separatist tribal revolt that took place in two phases, the first between 1941 and 1942 and the second in 1944. It occurred in Iran when Muhammed Rashid led Kurdish tribes against Pahlavi Iran. The Pahlavis wanted to prevent Kurdish independence, while Kurdish tribes wanted to be reinstated with lost land and demanded employment of their leaders in Tehran. The Iranian government attempted to make a deal, while Hama Rashid seized territory in central Kurdistan. Rashid eventually retreated when Iran supported a neighbouring territory. | Asia |
| 1967 Kurdish Revolt in Iran | | 20th | March 1967 | 1968 | The 1967 Kurdish Revolt in Iran was part of the long-running Kurdish separatist conflict in Iran. The revolt aimed to establish Kurdish autonomy in Iran and was triggered by news of the First Iraqi-Kurdish War in 1961 and the resurgence of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran. The Iranian Kurdish National movement of the Kurdish Democratic Party changed leadership to mainly Iranian Tudeh Party leaders, who in turn formed a Revolutionary Committee and supported uprisings by peasants against the Iranian National Police. Iranian government forces crushed the revolt after 18 months. | Asia |
| 1979 Kurdish Rebellion in Iran | | 20th | March 1979 | 1983 | The 1979 Kurdish Rebellion in Iran began in mid-March 1979. The rebellion occurred after the Iranian Revolution and the establishment of a new state in Iran when relations between the Kurds and the new government had broken down. The Kurds aimed for independence and captured territory in Iran. In 1980, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and Iranian government troops launched an offensive, and sieges in retaliation resulted in Kurdish militants being forced out of their strongholds. Clashes between government troops and Kurdish rebels continued until 1983. | Asia |
| KDPI Insurgency | | 20th | 13 July 1989 | 23 August 1996 | The KDPI Insurgency refers to the insurgency of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran that took place from 13 July 1989 to 23 August 1996. Tensions increased due to the assassination of the leader of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI),which was suspected to be inflicted by Iranian government agents. The KDPI renewed conflict against Iran’s government when a demonstration against the execution of Kurdish activists resulted in the arrest of Kurdish protesters. Conflict between Iranian Kurdish militants and Iranian forces ensued, and attacks also took place in Iraq. A ceasefire was agreed in 1996. | Asia |
| Mahabad Riots | | 21st | May 2015 | May 2015 | The Mahabad Riots began on 7 May 2015 in Mahabad, Iran, following the death of the Kurdish woman Farinaz Khosravani. It was reported that Khosravani fell out of the window of the hotel where she worked after an Iranian Revolutionary Guard had raped her, but the Mahabad police chief denied the guard’s connection to Iranian security. Riots led by Kurds erupted and the hotel was set on fire. Violence spread across Kurdish areas in Iran and evolved into clashes between Kurds and the police. The Iranian government deployed troops that executed and arrested supporters of the protests. | Asia |
| Seven-Day War | Operation Accountability | 20th | 25 July 1993 | 31 July 1993 | The Seven-Day War, also known as Operation Accountability, took place from 25 to 31 July 1993 in Lebanon and northern Israel. The war was fought between Israel and Hezbollah and was part of an ongoing conflict between Israel and Lebanon. Hezbollah was in opposition to Israel’s invasion of Lebanon, while Israel aimed to strike at them, to stop them from striking at Israel from southern Lebanon and to displace refugees so that the Lebanese government would intervene against Hezbollah. After a week of both sides attacking one another, including civilian attacks, a ceasefire was agreed. | Asia |
| Operation Grapes of Wrath | April Aggression | 20th | 11 April 1996 | 27 April 1996 | Operation Grapes of Wrath, also known as the April Aggression, took place between 11 to 27 April 1996 in Lebanon and northern Israel. It refers to Israel’s military campaign against the Lebanese Shia political party and militant group, Hezbollah, after a cycle of retaliatory attacks between them. Israel aimed to end Hezbollah’s attacks on their country by creating a humanitarian crisis that would pressure Lebanese and Syrian governments to intervene. Hezbollah fired into northern Israel in retaliation to Israel’s shelling and air raids. The conflict ended when a ceasefire was agreed. | Asia |
| Samu Incident | Battle of Samu | 20th | 13 November 1966 | 13 November 1966 | The Samu Incident, also known as the Battle of Samu, occurred on 13 November 1966 in Samu in the Jordanian West Bank when Israeli forces led a large-scale attack that destroyed villages and clashed with Jordan’s forces. Israel aimed to avenge an attack by the Palestinian nationalist group, al-Fatah, that killed Israeli soldiers and purportedly originated from Jordan even though Jordan’s king had attempted to limit Fatah activity in Jordan. Other sources state that Israel aimed to test the United Arab Command’s support of Jordan. The conflict was a contributing factor to the Six-Day War. | Asia |
| 2008 Lebanon Conflict | 6 May 2008 Clashes | 21st | 7 May 2008 | 14 May 2008 | The 2008 Lebanon Conflict, also known as the 7 May 2008 Clashes, from 7 to 14 May 2008 in Lebanon, was triggered by the government’s decision to dismantle Hezbollah’s telecommunication network and to remove Beirut Airport’s head of security when it was alleged that he had ties to Hezbollah. Violence between pro-government and opposition protesters erupted in the climate of a general strike about wages and consumer prices. Conflicts erupted in Beirut between pro-government and opposition militias and spread nationwide. The Arab League brokered an end to the violence with the Doha Agreement. | Asia |
| Cave of the Patriarchs Massacre | Hebron Massacre | 20th | 25 February 1994 | 25 February 1994 | The Cave of the Patriarchs Massacre, also known as the Hebron Massacre, took place in the Ibrahimi Mosque, Hebron, West Bank, on 25 February 1994 during Ramadan and on Purim, a Jewish festival. The massacre was carried out by an American-Israeli extremist, Baruch Goldstein, of the banned Kach movement, who fired at Palestinian Muslims in the mosque. Goldstein aimed to avenge the Kach leader’s death and Jews generally. The massacre triggered protests by Palestinians, and violent confrontation between the Israeli military and Palestinians ensued, in which Palestinians were killed. | Asia |
| Surafend Massacre | Surafend Affair | 20th | 10 December 1918 | 10 December 1918 | The Surafend Massacre, also known as the Surafend Affair, took place on the 10 December 1918 in the Arab village of Surafend, present-day Tzrifin, Israel, and a Bedouin camp in Palestine. After the 1918 Armistice, the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division camped near the Jewish settlement of Rishon LeZion. Australian and New Zealand soldiers carried out the massacre in retribution to a New Zealand soldier being shot by a thief he found in his tent. The soldiers traced the killer’s footprints near to Surafend where they attacked villagers and torched houses and a Bedouin camp. | Asia |
| 1860 Syrian Civil War | Druze-Maronite Massacre of 1860 | 19th | 23 May 1860 | 11 July 1860 | The 1860 Syrian Civil War, also known as the Druze-Maronite Massacre of 1860, took place from 27 May to 11 July 1860 between Christians and the Druze in Mount Lebanon and Damascus in the Ottoman Empire, present-day Lebanon. Friction between the groups rose due to Ottoman reforms on equal status, the expansion of European presence in the region, and religious tensions. The Ottomans aimed to divide Mount Lebanon between the Christians and Druzes, but conflict, looting, murders and skirmishes occurred. War broke out with the Druze supported by the Ottomans against the Christians, who were massacred. | Asia |
| Massacre of Aleppo | The Events | 19th | 17 October 1850 | 8 November 1850 | The Massacre of Aleppo, also known simply as The Events, began on 17 October 1850 in Aleppo, Syria. Tension between Christians and Muslims had risen due to discontent with social reforms, taxes, and forced conscription by the Ottoman Caliphate that attempted to modernise the region. The threat of conscription triggered Muslims to riot, which spread to Christian quarters where Christians were massacred. The rioters wanted to stop conscription, restrict aspects of Christian procession, and stop Christians owning slaves. A change in governor gave rise to conflict that lasted until 8 November 1850. | Asia |
| 1517 Safed Attacks | | 16th | 1517 | 1517 | The 1517 Safed Attacks was a pogrom against Jews in Safed or Tzfat, present-day Israel, in 1517. At the tail-end of the Mamluk Sultanate’s defeat by the invading Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman-Mamluk War of 1516-1517, the Mamluks clashed with their new Ottoman authorities. The Mamluks and some Arab villagers believed the Jewish community had helped the Ottomans, and so led a pogrom against them. The impact of the clashes between the Ottomans and Mamluks on the Jews is contested by some sources, while others state that the pogrom was the result of the attempts of local Mamluk sheikhs to reassert their control. | Asia |
| Siege of Jaffa | Jaffa Massacre of 1799 | 18th | 3 March 1799 | 7 March 1799 | The Siege of Jaffa, also known as the Jaffa Massacre, took place between 3 and 7 March 1799 in Jaffa, Sidon Eyalet, Ottoman Empire, present-day Israel. Napoleon Bonaparte led a French army into Jaffa while Ottoman forces defended the city. Napoleon wanted to continue his campaign of capturing Ottoman territory and seized Jaffa as part of his mission to solidify his hold in the Levant. The French led a ruthless campaign into Jaffa after the city refused an order to surrender and the Ottomans decapitated the French messengers. The French successfully seized Jaffa and many civilians left the city. | Asia |
| 1935-1936 Iraqi Shia Revolts | 1935 Rumaitha and Diwaniya Revolt | 20th | 1935 | 1936 | The 1935 Rumaitha and Diwaniya Revolt, also known as the 1935-1936 Iraqi Shia Revolts, took place in Iraq when Shia tribes and the Party of National Brotherhood revolted against the majority Sunni authority of Iraq. The rebellions occurred due to the lack of representation of Shias in the Iraqi government. Unrest in Iraq rose in January 1935 because of this, later spreading to Al Diwaniyah in Iraq. The Iraqi air force and army used force to defeat the Shia tribesmen and suppressed the revolt in May 1935. In 1936, another Shia uprising attacked the Iraqi air force and troops. | Asia |
| Qibya Massacre | Qibya Operation | 20th | 14 October 1953 | 14 October 1953 | The Qibya Massacre, also known as the Qibya Operation, took place on 14 October 1953, in Qibya in the Jordanian-controlled West Bank, present-day Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate, Palestine. Israeli troops carried out the massacre on the Palestinian civilians of Qibya as an act of retribution to the Yehud attack of 12 October 1953 in which three Israeli civilians were killed by a Palestinian fedayeen squad. The Qibya raid took place against a background of cross-border infiltration between neighbouring states and Israel, mostly for economic or social reasons, with some infiltrators carrying out violence. | Asia |
| 1920 Nebi Musa Riots | 1920 Jerusalem Riots | 21st | 4 April 2020 | 4 April 2020 | The 1920 Nebu Musa Riots, also known as the 1920 Jerusalem Riots, took place in the Old City of Jerusalem, British-controlled area of Occupied Enemy Territory Administration, present-day East Jerusalem occupied by Israel, from 4 to 7 April 1920. The riots between Arabs and Jews erupted during the Nebi Musa festival in reaction to Arab anger at the Balfour Declaration and rising inter-communal tension between Arabs and Jews in Mandatory Palestine. The British military of Palestine had withdrawn their troops from Jerusalem and were slow to regain control after the riots. | Asia |
| 1933 Palestine Riots | Jaffa Massacre of 1933 | 20th | 13 October 1922 | 29 October 1922 | The 1933 Palestine Riots, also known as the Jaffa Massacre of 1933, refers to the riots and killings of Palestinians by police in Mandatory Palestine, present-day Israel and Palestine. The riots began on 13 October 1933 at an Arab Executive Committee-organised demonstration responding to unrestricted Jewish migration and British facilitation of Jewish land purchases. The High Commissioner banned the protest and British police broke it up, but at a march in Jaffa, they fired at the crowd. Rioting and violence between police and Arabs occurred in the rest of Mandatory Palestine until 29 October 1933. | Asia |
| Red Army Invasion of Azerbaijan | Soviet Invasion of Azerbaijan | 20th | 27 April 1920 | 28 April 1920 | The Red Army Invasion of Azerbaijan, also known as the Soviet invasion of Azerbaijan, took place from 27 April to 28 April 1920. Soviet Russia invaded the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic with the intent to instal a Soviet government and to secure access to Baku in Azerbaijan for oil supplies. While the Azerbaijani government lost support and failed to form a new cabinet, the Azerbaijani Communist Party grew and organised a coup with the Turkish Communist Party. The Red Army subsequently invaded. Azerbaijan Democratic Republic fell as a result, and the Azerbaijani Revolutionary Committee was formed. | Asia |
| 1622-1623 Mughal-Safavid War | | 17th | 1622 | 1623 | The Mughal-Safavid War of 1622-1623 was fought between the Persian Safavid Empire and the Mughal Empire over control of Kandahar, an important fortress city in Afghanistan situated in the middle of the two empires. The Safavid leader, Shah Abbas, intended to recapture Kandahar, which his empire had lost in 1595. The Safavids attempted to reclaim Kandahar in 1605, but the Mughals fought back and the Safavids retreated. In June 1622, the Safavids led another siege, in which they defeated the Mughals. | Asia |
| Inn Din Massacre | | 21st | 2 September 2017 | 2 September 2017 | The Inn Din Massacre refers to a mass killing of Rohingyas, an ethnic minority persecuted by Myanmar and nationalist Buddhists, which took place on 2 September 2017. The massacre was carried out by local paramilitary police officers and the Myanmar Army in Inn Din, Rakhine State, Myanmar, in retaliation to civilian attacks by Rohingya insurgents in August 2017. The perpetrators believed that the Rohingyas of Inn Din were members of the Rohingya nationalist group, Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA),that carried out the attacks and whose objective was to liberate Rohingyas from oppression. | Asia |
| 1947 Poonch Rebellion | | 20th | June 1947 | October 1947 | The 1947 Poonch Rebellion occurred from June to October 1947 in the Poonch jagir, a district of Jammu and Kashmir, split between present-day India and Pakistan. Kashmiri rebels of Poonch led a rebellion backed by Pakistan. Poonch’s loss of autonomy, increased taxes, repression, and poor employment for demobilised soldiers had caused discontent and resentment among the Muslim people of Poonch who wanted to join Pakistan. The rebellion was a contributing factor to the First Kashmir War. | Asia |
| 1838 Druze Revolt | | 19th | 1 January 1828 | 23 July 1828 | The 1838 Druze Revolt occurred from January to July 1838 when the Druze of Mount Lebanon in Ottoman Syria, present-day Lebanon, revolted against the rule of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt who had invaded the region in 1831. The Druze resisted Pasha’s authority, while Pasha considered the Druze heretics. The uprising was triggered by Egypt’s instigation of conscription and disarmament that was opposed by the Druze. The Druze aimed to force the Egyptians out of the area, but Egypt and allied forces from Syria aggressively suppressed the revolt and restored their rule in Mount Lebanon. | Asia |
| 1974 Treaty of Jeddah | | 20th | 21 August 1974 | | The Treaty of Jeddah was signed on 21 August 1974 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The treaty aimed to resolve the border disputes between the two countries, as well as the Buraimi Dispute. The treaty was agreed after failed negotiations and the defeat and removal of Saudi troops in Buraimi part of present-day United Arab Emirates. The treaty included discrepancies between the oral and written agreement, which the United Arab Emirates has disputed and since aimed to resolve with Saudi Arabia. | Asia |
| Ottoman-Persian War of 1775-1776 | | 18th | 1775 | 1776 | The Ottoman-Persian War of 1775-1776 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Zand dynasty of Persia who began an invasion of southern Iraq, which was under Ottoman rule at the time. The Zand dynasty had taken over parts of Persia after the collapse of Nāder Shah’s Ashfarid dynasty of Persia with whom the Ottomans had made a prior peace treaty. The Zand dynasty led a siege of Basra, a city in Iraq. The Ottomans were unable to send their own troops to defend the city and instead relied on the Mamluk governors of Baghdad to provide forces. The war resulted in the Persian army successfully capturing Basra. | Asia |
| Palestinian Fedayeen Insurgency | | 20th | 1949 | 1956 | The Palestinian Fedayeen Insurgency from 1949 to 1956 was fought in the All-Palestine Protectorate of Gaza City, a client state of Egypt, present-day Gaza Strip. Palestinian civilians were entering Israel for economic reasons, with Israel stating that border infiltration was illegal. Nationalist Palestinian fedayeen militants then crossed the border into Israel to commit violent attacks, with Israel retaliating with force to convince Arab leaders to stop the fedayeen’s actions. The fedayeen then operated from Egypt, and Israel led a raid into the Gaza Strip. | Asia |
| Taif Agreement | National Reconciliation Accord | 20th | 22 October 1989 | | The Taif Agreement, also known as the National Reconciliation Accord, was signed in Taif, Saudi Arabia on 22 October 1989. The agreement sought to end the Lebanese Civil War between the Maronite Christians and Palestinian forces, which Israel and Syria also were involved in. The agreement’s terms included to re-establish the Lebanese government’s authority from Israel’s occupation in southern Lebanon, for Syrian forces to withdraw from Lebanon, to divide the Lebanese cabinet equally between Muslims and Christians, and for national and non-national militias to be disarmed. | Asia |
| Siachen War | Siachen Glacier Conflict | 20th | 13 April 1984 | 25 November 1989 | The Siachen War, also known as the Siachen Glacier Conflict, took place between 13 April 1984 and 25 November 2003. It was fought by India and Pakistan over territorial claims to the Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. The conflict was rooted in the fact that the region’s territory is incompletely demarcated on the map and prior treaties had not confirmed who controlled the glacier. Warfare between Indian and Pakistani troops ensued and India captured the Siachen Glacier, tributary glaciers and other passes and heights, part of present-day Ladakh, Kashmir. The war ended with a ceasefire. | Asia |
| Tafas Massacre | | 20th | 27 September 1918 | 27 September 1918 | The Tafas Massacre took place in Tafas, Ottoman Syria, present-day southern Syria. The massacre was carried out by the Ottoman Empire’s Army on civilians of Tafas on 27 September 1918 when the Ottomans were retreating after World War I. The Ottomans committed the massacre with the aim of demoralising the British and Arab forces who were pursuing the army. In a state of anger after seeing what had happened to Tafas, a British commander who led Arab forces ordered troops to attack the Ottoman army. | Asia |
| Persian-Uzbek Wars | | 16th | 1502 | 1510 | The Persian-Uzbek Wars took place from 1502 to 1510 and were fought between the Safavid dynasty of Iran and the Shaybanid dynasty who controlled most of present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and parts of southern Russia. The war was prompted by the Shaybanid’s raid of the Timurid Empire when the Timurid ruler of Herat asked the Safavids for help. The Shaybanids seized Herat in present-day Afghanistan and an alliance between Timurid and Persian forces fought against the dynasty’s Uzbek army. The war resulted in the defeat of the Shaybanids and the fall of their empire. | Asia |
| 1947 Jammu Massacres | | 20th | October 1947 | November 1947 | The 1947 Jammu Massacres took place between October 1947 and November 1947 in the Jammu province, Jammu and Kashmir. The massacre refers to the mass killing of Muslims by extremist Hindus and Sikhs who were supported by the forces of Maharaja Hari Singh. Hari Singh wanted Jammu and Kashmir to remain independent following the Partition of India, but the Muslim Conference opposed this and wanted to join Pakistan. Sources differ on whether the motivation behind the massacres was to eliminate the Muslims of the region and ensure a Hindu majority, or whether it was revenge over the 1947 Poonch Rebellion. | Asia |
| Sumgait Pogrom | | 20th | 27 February 1988 | 1 March 1988 | The Sumgait Pogrom occurred from 27 February to 1 March 1988 in Sumgait, Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, present-day Azerbaijan. The perpetrators of the massacre were mobs of ethnic Azerbaijanis who carried out mass killings, rape, and rioting against Armenians. The massacre aimed to suppress Armenian free expression and was in response to the Armenian desire for self-determination. After the rioting erupted on 27 February, external military units attempted to suppress the chaos, and government forces imposed martial law and a curfew. | Asia |
| Simla Agreement | | 20th | 2 July 1972 | | The Simla Agreement was a peace treaty that was signed on 2 July 1972 in Barnes Court, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. The treaty was signed following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 when India allied with Bengali rebels against Pakistani forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The war resulted in the formation of Bangladesh, and the treaty confirmed the end of the conflict. The treaty aimed to normalise relations between India and Pakistan as well as plan for diplomatic recognition of Bangladesh. | Asia |
| Delhi Agreement | | 20th | 9 April 1973 | 28 August 1973 | The Delhi Agreement was signed by India, Pakistan and Bangladesh on 9 April 1973 in New Delhi, India, following the Simla Agreement. Bengalis had been interned in West Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War by the Pakistani government, while Pakistani prisoners of war were held in India after the Surrender of Pakistan. The treaty agreed to the repatriation of the Bangladeshi and Pakistani citizens, prisoners of war and interned officers after the war ended, but was met with criticism as it did not include a war crimes tribunal or hold military personnel to account for actions committed during the war. | Asia |
| 2006 Nepalese Revolution | Jana Andolan II | 21st | 4 April 2006 | 24 April 2006 | The 2006 Nepalese Revolution, also known as Jana Andolan II, meaning People’s Movement II, was an uprising that began on 4 April 2006 against the direct rule of King Gyanendra of Nepal who in 2005 deposed the members of the Nepali Congress, instilled military rule, and aimed to suppress the Maoist Communist rebellion. The Seven Party Alliance led the revolt and were backed by Maoist Communist rebels. The Seven Party Alliance sought to reinstate democratic rule. King Gyanendra’s forces responded to the protests with violence and repression. On 24 April 2006, the king reinstated the Nepalese Parliament and ended the revolution. | Asia |
| 1947 Amritsar Train Massacre | | 20th | 22 September 1947 | 22 September 1947 | The 1947 Amritsar Train Massacre was carried out on 22 September 1947 during the Partition of India of 1947. The massacre took place in Amritsar in the East Punjab of India when Muslim refugee train passengers travelling to the refugee camp in Lahore, Pakistan, were killed and wounded by armed Sikhs. The Sikh perpetrators, Jathas, wanted to ethnically cleanse the Eastern Punjab of a Muslim population. The West Punjab government stated Muslims had too attacked a train, of Hindu and Sikh refugees. By month’s end, the Pakistan government halted refugee trains passing between East and West Punjab. | Asia |
| 1980 Moradabad Riots | Moradabad Muslim Massacre | 20th | August 1980 | November 1980 | The 1980 Moradabad Riots, also known as the Moradabad Muslim Massacre, began in August 1980 in Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. Police carried out the massacre during Eid when they fired at Muslims after some Muslims threw stones at them when police refused to remove a pig that had entered the Idgah. Sources vary as to whether the pig was the Dalit’s or the police’s responsibility as tensions between Hindus and Muslims were fraught due to Muslims kidnapping a Dalit girl that year. The massacre led to further unrest between Muslims and Hindus which spread to other areas. The riots ended in November 1980. | Asia |
| Mughal-Safavid War of 1649-1653 | | 17th | 1649 | 1653 | The Mughal-Safavid War of 1649 to 1653 took place in Afghanistan between the Mughal Empire and the Safavid Empire when the Safavids captured Kandahar, a fortress city, and other Mughal-ruled cities. The Safavids made claims to Kandahar due to a prior Shah’s agreement, but the Mughals under Shah Jahan wanted Kandahar in Mughal control due to trade routes and wanting to expand the western frontier of their empire. The Safavids led a siege to Kandahar and captured it, but the Mughals fought back and attempted to retake it three times before accepting defeat. | Asia |
| Ramadan Revolution | February 1963 Coup d’État in Iraq | 20th | 8 February 1963 | 10 February 1963 | The Ramadan Revolution, also known as the February 1963 coup d’état in Iraq, occurred from 8 to 10 February 1963 in the Republic of Iraq when the Ba’ath Party overthrew the Iraqi government’s Prime Minister, Abd al-Karim Qasim. After the formation of the Iraq republic in 1958, the Ba’ath Party wanted Iraq to unify with the United Arab Republic while Abd al-Karim Qasim’s relationships with fellow party members and unionists and nationalist supporters became strained. The Ba’athists organised a coup fought with pro-Qasim forces. Qasim surrendered, and the Ba’athist government was established. | Asia |
| Nepal-Britain Treaty of 1923 | | 20th | 21 December 1923 | | The Nepal-Britain Treaty of 1923 was signed on 21 December 1923 in Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal by Nepal and the British Empire. It stated that Nepal was an independent and sovereign state with the right to conduct its own foreign policy. Prior to the Nepal-Britain Treaty of 1923, the Sugauli Treaty of 1816 had limited Nepal’s independence and foreign policy. The Prime Minister of Nepal wanted a treaty with Britain that recognised Nepal’s independence after the restrictions of the Sugauli Treaty. This became the Nepal-Britain Treaty of 1923 and was recorded in the League of Nations. | Asia |
| 1951 Nepalese Revolution | Sat Salko Kranti | 20th | 6 November 1950 | 18 February 1951 | The 1951 Nepalese Revolution, also known as Sat Salko Kranti, was an uprising by the Nepali Congress Party’s military wing called Congress Mukti Sena against the Rana dynasty of Nepal. The Ranas led an autocratic regime in which the Prime Minister and government were hereditary positions held by Ranas. The Ranas imposed totalitarianism and uprisings and strikes had previously taken place with demands for democracy and to liberate Nepal from the Ranas. The Nepali Congress Party began an armed revolt that resulted in the establishment of democracy and an interim government in Nepal of Ranas and the Nepali Congress. | Asia |
| Goringhaiqua - Dutch Treaty | Dutch-Khoi Agreement of 1672 | 17th | 6 April 1660 | | The Goringhaiqua-Dutch Treaty, also known as the the Dutch-Khoi Agreement of 1672, was a peace treaty which ended the First Khoikhoi-Dutch War. It was signed by the Dutch and by the Goringhaiqua and the Goarchoqua, two clans who had led the resistance and jointly represented the Khoikhoi. Both parties agreed that neither would attack each other in future and that the Khoikhoi would only enter the settlements territory and remain on designated paths for the purpose of trade. The treaty also stipulated that the Dutch settlers retain ownership of the land they occupied, and treat the natives fairly. | Africa |
| Second Khoikhoi–Dutch War | Second Khoi-Dutch War | 17th | 1673 | 1677 | The Second Khoikhoi-Dutch War, also known as the Second Khoi-Dutch War, was a conflict between the Khoikhoi of the Cape (present-day South Africa),and Dutch colonists. As Dutch settlers continued their expansion into Khoikhoi lands, the Khoikhoi retaliated, leading to numerous armed confrontations in the Saldanha Bay and Boland regions. In 1673, the governing authority of the Cape Colony sent a punitive expedition to the Cochoqua clan, marking the start of the second Khoi-Dutch War. After the war, the VOC claimed the land by conquest and allocated seized land to farmers, and the Khoikhoi were incorporated into the Dutch economy as poorly treated labourers. | Africa |
| Somali Rebellion | Somalian Revolution | 20th | 10 April 1978 | 26 January 1991 | The Somali Rebellion, also known as the Somalian Revolution, was a conflict between President Siad Barre’s special forces, nicknamed the Red Berets, and clan-based dissident groups in Somalia. After Barre was injured in a car accident, insurgents within his government joined rebel groups and entered into open conflict.
The Somali Rebellion marked the beginning of the Civil War, which resulted in a declaration of independence by Somaliland in 1991. | Africa |
| Banu Ghaniya Invasion of North Africa | Banu Ghaniya Insurrection | 12th, 13th | November 1184 | 1237 / 1238 | The Banu Ghaniya Invasion of North Africa, also known as the Banu Ghaniya Insurrection or the Banu Ghaniyya Rebellion, was a series of military campaigns by the Banu Ghaniya against the Almohads in Northern Africa. After losing their status as rulers in Spain, the Banu Ghaniya managed to retain control of the Balearic Islands. Muhammad Banu Ghaniya was ousted by his brother Ali, who invaded the eastern Maghrib, attacking Bijaya in November 1184 and captured Algiers and Milyana. | Africa |
| Sack of Damietta | Raid of Damietta | 9th | 22nd May 853 | 24th May 853 | The Sack of Damietta, also known as the Raid of Damietta, was an attack on the port city of Damietta in Egypt by the Byzantine navy. The Byzantine Empire had lost Egypt to the Arabs more than 200 hundred years prior and wanted to regain control of its territories. While Damietta’s garrison was absent, the Byzantines attacked the city with 85 ships and 5,000 men over two days. Six hundred Arab and Coptic women, as well as large quantities of arms and other supplies intended for Crete were taken in the raid, and Damietta was torched by Byzantine troops. | Africa |
| Fifth Crusade | | 13th | 1217 | 1221 | The Fifth Crusade was a campaign in a series of crusades by Western Europeans with the intention of conquering Jerusalem by first destroying Muslim power in the region. A combined army of Frisian, German and Italian crusaders set out to Egypt and captured the entire town of Damietta in 1219. In 1221, when Cardinal-Legate Pelagius ordered an advance of Cairo, the Christian army was defeated due to their lack of knowledge of the terrain. The Egyptian sultan Al-Malik al-Kāmil had received Francis of Assisi courteously during the crusade, but had declined to convert to Christianity. | Africa |
| Great Insurrection | Great Sedition | 18th | 1711 | | The Great Insurrection, also known as the Great Sedition, was a factional war in Egypt between the Qasimiyya and the Azabans fighting against the Faqariyya, the ruling faction at the time. The Faqariyya had enjoyed political dominance since 1692, when they had increased their influence over the Janissaries. The war began with an imperial decree against military patronages and ended with the defeat of the Faqariyya. | Africa |
| Madeira Uprising | Revolt of the Deported | 20th | 4 April 1931 | 6 May 1931 | The Madeira Uprising, also known as the Revolt of the Deported or the Island Revolt, was a conflict that began in Madeira but spread to Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique and São Tomé. The revolt started when junior officers of the Special Delegate of the Government of the Republic, sent by the National Dictatorship in Portugal, began occupying buildings and arresting senior leaders loyal to the government. Following the defeat of the uprising in Madeira on 6 May 1931, the rebels in Portuguese Guinea also surrendered. | Africa |
| Nigerian Civil War | Biafran War | 20th | 6 July 1967 | 15 January 1970 | The Nigerian Civil war, also known as the Biafran War or the Nigerian–Biafran War, was a conflict built upon ethnic tensions fought between Nigeria’s federal government and Biafra, a secessionist state. Nigeria was largely controlled by three ethnic groups, the Yoruba, the Igbo and the Hausa-Fulani and, due to endemic conflicts and mounting tensions, the federal government was on the brink of collapse. After rising tensions and instabilities, the Republic of Biafra unilaterally declared its independence from Nigeria in May 1967, which Nigeria’s federal government interpreted as an act of rebellion. After 30 months of bitter fighting, the war ended in Biafra’s surrender. | Africa |
| Banjul III Peace Accord | Banjul III Agreement | 20th | 24 October 1990 | | The Banjul III Peace Accord, also known as the Banjul III Agreement, was a peace treaty and a ceasefire that aimed to end civil conflict in Liberia between the Armed Forces of Liberia, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). Though the parties agreed to convene a second All-Liberian Conference that would hold a new election for an interim administration, the NPFL made a concerted effort to prevent the development of the proposed conference, refusing to sign the agreement due to their belief that the accord would not lead to their goal of making Charles Taylor, the NPFL leader, the head of the interim government. | Africa |
| Banjul IV Agreement | | 20th | 21 December 1990 | | The Banjul IV Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Gambia’s capital by the warring parties of the Armed Forces of Liberia, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL). The agreement stipulated that all parties continue the ceasefire agreed on 28 November 1990 in Bamako. The treaty also bound its signatories to form a future interim government and to organise an All Liberia Conference within 60 days. | Africa |
| Lomé Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 13 February 1991 | | The Lomé Ceasefire Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL),The National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) and the Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL) in the Togolese Republic. The treaty was witnessed by the President of the Republic of The Gambia and detailed a ceasefire of the civil conflict in Liberia. | Africa |
| Lomé Peace Agreement | | 20th | 7 July 1999 | | The Lomé Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed in Togo by the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone with the intention of a cessation of hostilities. The treaty set out the nature of a ceasefire between parties, governance management of national reconstruction and other political issues. The treaty was protested by international humanitarian group and within Sierra Leone, because it gave Foday Sankoh, the brutal leader of the RUF, control over the diamond mines. | Africa |
| Yamoussoukro IV Accord | | 20th | 30 October 1991 | | The Yamoussoukro IV Accord was a peace treaty signed in the Ivory Coast by Dr. Amos Sawyer, President of the Interim Government of Liberia, and Charles Taylor, Head of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL). Also present at the Committee were the presidents of Burkina Faso, the Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Togo and representatives from Sierra Leone, Gambia, Guinea and Ghana. The treaty set out a plan for disarmament and cessation of hostility in Liberia during the First Liberian Civil War. | Africa |
| Abidjan Peace Accord | | 20th | 30 November 1996 | | The Abidjan Peace Accord was a peace treaty signed by President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah of Sierra Leone and Foday Sankoh, the leader of Revolutionary United Front (RUF) rebel group in the Ivory Coast. Though treaty was intended to end the civil war in Sierra Leone, Sankoh refused to honour the terms of the agreement only a year after signing the accord, and Kabbah was forced into exile by a military coup, resulting in the accord’s failure to bring about peace. | Africa |
| Akosombo Peace Agreement | Accra Clarification | 20th | 12 September 1994 | | The Akosombo Peace Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL),United Liberation Movement of Liberia for Democracy (ULIMO) and Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) in Ghana. The treaty supplemented and amended the Cotonou Agreement and intended to end the Liberian Civil War. All parties agreed to disarmament and the unamended terms of the Cotonou Agreement. | Africa |
| Lancaster House Agreement | | 20th | 21 December 1979 | | The Lancaster House Agreement was a series of agreements signed in London. The signing of agreements effectively terminated armed conflict in Zimbabwe and led to Rhodesia achieving recognition as an independent Zimbabwe. This agreement repealed the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) which declared that Rhodesia regarded itself as an independent sovereign state. This declaration had not been recognised by the UK or the UN and had been instigated by a largely white minority elite. The UDI had provoked violent insurgency from black nationalist groups. Rhodesia temporarily returned to its status as a colony before the election of Robert Mugabe in 1980. | Africa |
| Accord de Cessation des Hostilités | | 20th | 16 November 1999 | | The Accord de Cessation des Hostilités en République du Congo (Ceasefire Agreement in the Republic of Congo) was a peace treaty signed by The High Command of the Force Publique and armed factions, including the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo (MNLC). The treaty was part of the peace process after the Second Congo Civil War and included agreements to the cessation of hostilities throughout the Congo, the demilitarisation of political parties, movements and associations and the collection of all illegal weaponry. | Africa |
| Nakuru County Peace Accord | Rift Valley Peace Accord | 21st | 19 August 2012 | | The Nakuru County Peace Accord, also known as the Rift Valley Peace Accord, was a peace treaty signed by elders of ethnic groups in Kenya. The peace accord was intended to end the cycle of violence that had been occurring in the Rift Valley and was especially notable during the 2007 Presidential Elections. The accord was finalised after discussions over 16 months. | Africa |
| Nakuru Agreement | | 20th | 21 June 1975 | | The Nakuru Agreement was a peace agreement between the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA),the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA),and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA),divided black nationalist movements that, despite previous agreements, had been engaging in violence and political discord. The agreement was an attempt to salvage the Alvor Agreement, which granted Angola independence from Portugal and established a transitional government. Though the Nakuru Agreement succeeded in creating a truce between the three nationalist movements, it was dissolved on the 9th July 1975. | Africa |
| N'sele Ceasefire Agreement | | 20th | 12 July 1992 | | The N’sele Ceasefire Agreement was a peace treaty signed by the government of the Rwandese Republic and the Rwandese Patriotic Front during the Rwandan Civil War. The treaty implemented a ceasefire for the purpose of a dialogue and negotiation between the two parties. This ceasefire was unsuccessful and both sides continued fighting until the end of the war in July 1994. | Africa |
| Arusha Accords | Arusha Peace Agreements | 20th | 4 August 1993 | | The Arusha Accords, also known as the Arusha Peace Agreements and Arusha Negotiations, was a peace treaty signed by the government of Rwanda and the rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF),under mediation, with the intention of ending a three-year Rwandan Civil War. This followed the N’sele Cease-fire Agreement which had not been adhered to. The Arusha Accords stipulated the need for an investigation into human rights violations in Rwanda at the time, and other points considered necessary for lasting peace such as the rule of law, repatriation of refugees both from fighting and from power-sharing agreements, and the merging of government and rebel armies. | Africa |
| Kampala Accord | | 21st | 9 June 2011 | | The Kampala Accord was a peace agreement made in order to end the transitional phase of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in Somalia. The party had been in power since 2004 and had forced out the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). However, Al-Shabaab, who had split off from the ICU, were at the forefront of an insurgency in Somalia at the time. The conditions of the Kampala Accord included the resignation of Prime Minister Mohamed Formajo, of the TFG, within 30 days of signing. Protests ensued and the Kampala decision was brought before parliament for deliberation. | Africa |
| Conakry Peace Plan | Conakry Agreement | 20th | 23 October 1997 | | The Conakry Peace Plan, also known as the Conakry Agreement, was a treaty which sought to implement a six-month peace plan for Sierra Leone after the coup d’état of the same year. The treaty provided for the immediate cessation of hostilities, disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration of combatants and the provision of humanitarian assistance amongst other techniques for peace. It also set out a schedule for enactment. On behalf of the ECOWAS committee of five, the treaty was signed by the ministers of foreign affairs of Nigeria and Guinea. | Africa |
| Ziguinchor Peace Agreement | | 21st | 30 December 2004 | | The Ziguinchor Peace Agreement was a treaty signed by the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) and the government of Senegal in order to agree a truce, which lasted until 2006. The Casamance conflict, still ongoing, is a war between the government of Senegal and separatists, regarding the independence of the region of Casamance whose inhabitants are largely religiously and ethnically distinct from the rest of the population. In the treaty, the state committed to ensuring the general safety and freedom of movement in Casamance, while the MFDC agreed to renounce armed conflict. | Africa |
| Settlement Plan | Settlement Proposals | 20th | 30 August 1998 | | The Settlement Plan, also known as the Settlement Proposals, was a set of agreements by the United Nations put forward to and signed by Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The treaty was intended to provide a solution to the conflict in Western Sahara, proposing a ceasefire and a referendum which would enable the population of Western Sahara to choose between independence from or integration with Morocco. The referendum never occurred. | Africa |
| Houston Accords | Results of the Fourth Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 16 September 1997 | | The Houston Accords, also known as the Results of the Fourth Round of Direct Talks and the Houston Agreement, was a peace agreement between Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The accord aimed at ending the conflict in the Western Sahara and to give the population a referendum, previously stalled in 1992, to decide between independence from, or integration with Morocco. The agreement was signed in Houston after peace talks conducted by the Secretary-General’s Personal Envoy for Western Sahara, James Baker, from 14 September 1997 to 16 September 1997. | Africa |
| Lisbon Compromise | Results of the Third Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 29 August 1997 | | The Lisbon Compromise, also known as the Results of the Third Round of Direct Talks, was a peace agreement to end the conflict in the Western Sahara. It was signed by Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara, and dealt with issues such as the containment of troops and the repatriation of prisoners. The compromise did not intend to alter or affect the borders of Western Sahara and clearly stated that it could not serve as a precedent for any argument that these borders had changed. | Africa |
| London Compromise Agreement | Results of the Second Round of Direct Talks | 20th | 20 July 1997 | | The London Compromise Agreement on Outstanding Identification Issues, also known as the Results of the Second Round of Direct Talks, was an agreement between Morocco and the POLISARIO, a rebel Sahrawi nationalist liberation movement claiming Western Sahara. The agreement requested the repatriation of refugees from Western Sahara, and intended to organise and identify tribal groups for a referendum on Western Sahara’s integration into, or independence from Morocco. | Africa |
| Bangui Accords | Declaration on the End of the Rebellious Action | 20th | 25 January 1997 | | The Bangui Accords, also known as the Declaration on the End of the Rebellious Action, Bangui Agreements and Bangui Peace Accords, was an agreement between the Government, led by Ange-Félix Patassé, and rebel groups. The agreement aimed to bring the conflict which had begun in 1995. Though a new prime minister, Michael Gbezera-Bria, was elected after the signing of the agreement, unrest continued. | Africa |
| Birao Peace Agreement | Accord de Paix de Birao | 21st | 1 April 2007 | | The Birao Peace Agreement, also known as the Accord de Paix de Birao, was an agreement between the Government of the Central African Republic and the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity, a politico-military movement. The agreement called for an immediate cessation of hostilities, containment of the troops of the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity and the liberation of political prisoners, as well as the implementation of a programme for peace. It was signed by General Ndougou Raymond for the government of CAR and Zacharia Damane for the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity. | Africa |
| Accord de Riyadh | | 21st | 3 April 2007 | | The Accord Bilatéral pour le Développement et le Renforcement des Relations entre Soudan et Tchad, also known as the Accord de Riyadh, was an agreement between Chad and Sudan with the intention of reaffirming respect of borders after the Chadian army entered Sudanese territory in April 2007. The two countries agreed to restore stability in the region of Darfur and to develop and strengthen relations between the two countries. | Africa |
| Tripoli Agreement | Libya Accord | 21st | 8 February 2006 | | The Tripoli Agreement, also known as the Libya Accord and the Tripoli Declaration, was an agreement between Chad and Sudan which intended to settle their differences. The agreement was signed by heads of state Omar Hassan El Beshir, on behalf of Sudan, and Idriss Deby Itno, on behalf of Chad. Relations between the two countries had deteriorated as both had been accused of supporting rebellions in the other. Following the signing of the accord, the Chadian government was almost toppled by rebels. Idriss Deby blamed Sudan for supporting the insurgency. | Africa |
| Operation Linda Nchi | Operation Protect the Nation | 21st | 16 October 2011 | | Operation Linda Nchi, also known as Operation Protect the Nation, was a Kenyan offensive in Somalia against Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab are a Sunni Islamist military and political group who operate largely in Somalia. The pretext for the attack was a series of kidnappings by Al Shabaab in September but, due its scale, it has been concluded that the operation was planned for some time before enaction. It was likely that a motive for Kenya was that the threat of Al Shabaab had been threatening Kenya’s industries, especially tourism. | Africa |
| Operation Sledge Hammer | Battle of Kismayo | 21st | 28 September 2012 | | Operation Sledgehammer, also known as the Battle of Kismayo, was a military offensive launched by the Kenyan Defence Forces (KDF) on the port city of Kismayo controlled by the Al Shabaab. Al Shabaab are a Sunni Islamist military and political group that operates largely in Somalia. They had been captured by Kismayo four years earlier in 2008 and turned the city into the Islamist group’s strategic base. The KDF, supported by the Somalian government, managed to capture the city and the operation was successful. | Africa |
| Allied Democratic Forces Insurgency | ADF Insurgency | 20th, 21st | 13 November 1996 | Ongoing | The Allied Democratic Forces Insurgency (ADF Insurgency) is an ongoing conflict in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The ADF is an insurgent group that was formed in Uganda after the fall of Idi Amin. Although the group has Islamist roots and has been linked with the Islamic State, it also recruited its members along secular ethnic lines. The ADF’s first attacks took place in Kampala in 1996. However, more recently the ADF have focused their attacks in the DRC and directed deadly suicide bombings, blown up churchgoers, and beheaded and burned villagers. | Africa |
| Guerre des Six Jours | Six-Day War (2000) | 21st | 5 June 2000 | 10 June 2000 | La Guerre des Six Jours, also known as the Six-Day War, was a conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo in the city of Kisangani. The war consisted of the occupation of Kisangani, a coveted river port, by the Ugandan and Rwandan armies. More than a thousand people died and many more were wounded. The occupation was deemed illegal by the United Nations but, despite Uganda and Rwanda being ordered to pay reparations, the crime has gone unpunished. | Africa |
| South Sudanese Civil War | | 21st | 15 December 2013 | 22 February 2020 | The South Sudanese Civil War was a conflict in South Sudan between soldiers loyal to President Salva Kiir and insurgent forces led by his deputy, Riek Machar. The war killed an estimated 400,000 people and displaced many more. Ethnic divides played into the reasons for the violence and, although the two leaders are members of the same movement called the SPLM, they are from different ethnic groups, the Dinka and Nuer. Although throughout the war various peace treaties were signed the peace process is ongoing and set to be finalised in 2024 with an election. | Africa |
| Yau Yau Agreement | | 21st | 9 May 2014 | | The Yau Yau Agreement or the Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in Jonglei State, was an agreement aimed to achieve peace and promote unity amongst the different ethnic minorities in South Sudan including the Dinka, Nuer, Murle, Anyuak, Kechipo and Jie. This agreement was signed by the Government of the Republic of South Sudan and the South Sudan Democratic Movement/Army Cobra Faction in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The agreement was part of the peace process after the South Sudan Civil War. | Africa |
| Mali War | | 21st | January 2012 | Ongoing | The Mali War is an ongoing conflict in Mali that started with the fourth Tuareg uprising in January 2012. Like other Tuareg uprisings, its roots were in France’s colonialism. Although this rebellion ended in 2015 with the Algiers Peace Agreement, the accord was never implemented by the military junta, led by Colonel Assimi Goïta, and the country has remained in a state of violent unease. | Africa |
| Operation Azalée | | 20th | 28 September 1995 | 3 October 1995 | Operation Azalée was an expedition in the Comoros, an independent country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. Led by France, the operation intended to depose a provisional government that had been put in power by Bob Denard, a French mercenary who had led a coup a few months earlier. The operation was successful and Denard was arrested. | Africa |
| 2008 Invasion of Anjouan | Operation Democracy in Comoros | 21st | 25 March 2008 | 25 March 2008 | The 2008 Invasion of Anjouan, also known as Operation Democracy in Comoros, was a conflict in the Comoros, an independent country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. The invasion occurred when the island of Anjouan was retaken by the central government after it had been held by rebel groups and Colonel Mohamed Bacar, who had refused to step down after a disputed election result the previous year. The invasion was backed by African Union forces, troops from Sudan, Tanzania, Senegal, and had logistical support from France and Libya. The invasion was successful. | Africa |
| Agacher Strip War | Christmas War | 20th | 25 December 1985 | 30 December 1985 | The Agacher Strip War, also known as the Christmas War or Guerre de Noël, was a war fought between Burkina Faso and Mali over a strip of the frontier in the north of Burkina Faso. The war lasted only five days, ending in a ceasefire and a decision to split the Agacher strip, made in The International Court of Justice in the Hague, which both parties accepted. The Malian claim to the border lands was based on ethnic grounds, while Burkina Faso relied on the frontiers inherited from colonial times. | Africa |
| Jihadist Insurgency in Burkina Faso | | 21st | 23 August 2015 | Ongoing | The Jihadist Insurgency in Burkina Faso is a conflict between the government and Islamist groups such as Ansaroul Islam, the Islamic State in West Africa Province (ISWAP),the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS),and the Group for the Support of Islam and Muslims (JNIM). Between 2015 and 2020, more than 550 attacks were carried out by Jihadists. Attacks have continued as of 2023, mostly in the Sahel region, resulting in thousands of casualties and over 2,000,000 displaced people. | Africa |
| 2014 Burkino Faso Uprising | 2014 Burkinabé Uprising | 21st | 28 October 2014 | 3 November 2014 | The 2014 Burkina Faso Uprising, also known as the 2014 Burkinabé Uprising, was an insurgency in Burkina Faso that resulted in the collapse of President Blaise Compaoré’s government, who had been in power for 27 years. Compaore’s attempt to put through a bill which would extend his term in office led to the demonstrations which spread throughout Burkina Faso. Rioters burnt the homes of the president’s relatives and the protests became increasingly more violent until Compaore resigned, escaping in exile to the Ivory Coast. | Africa |
| Entumbane I | 1980 Entumbane Clashes | 20th | 9 November 1980 | 10 November 1980 | Entumbane I, also known as the 1980 Entumbane Clashes, was a conflict in Zimbabwe in the period immediately following Zimbabwean independence. The clashes were between the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). 58 people died and over 500 people were wounded. The conflict ended with a ceasefire but was followed by a larger uprising the following year. | Africa |
| Entumbane II | Battle of Bulawayo | 20th | 8 February 1981 | 12 February 1981 | Entumbane II, also known as the Battle of Bulawayo, the 1981 Entumbane Clashes or the Matebeleland Conflict, was a conflict in 1981 between the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) within the Zimbabwe National Army. There were fears that the mutiny could lead to a civil war. The uprising was defeated by the Rhodesian African Rifles and other white-led elements of ex-colonial forces. | Africa |
| Rome General Peace Accords | Acordo Geral de Paz | 20th | 4 October 1992 | | The Rome General Peace Accords, also known as Acordo Geral de Paz, was a peace agreement signed by the Republic of Mozambique and RENAMO, with the intention of ending the Civil War in Mozambique. The accords detailed a ceasefire, the criteria for the formation and recognition of political parties, and the need for freedom of the press and liberty of movement, amongst other protocols. RENAMO ended its commitment to the peace deal in 2013 when the government attacked their base. | Africa |
| Gukurahundi | Matabeleland Massacres | 20th | 1983 | 1987 | Gukurahundi, also known as the Gukurahundi Massacres or Matabeleland Massacre, was a genocide in Zimbabwe initiated and performed by the Fifth Brigade and ordered by Robert Mugabe. Somewhere between 20,000 and 80,000 civilians were murdered. The Fifth Brigade had been trained in North Korea and were almost exclusively Shona speaking, those who suffered at their hands were Ndebele. Mugabe believed that Joshua Nkomo, leader of the Zimbabwe African People's Union and a Ndebele nationalist, was a threat to his presidency. | Africa |
| Unity Accord of 1987 | | 20th | 22 December 1987 | | The Unity Accord of 1987 was a peace agreement signed in Zimbabwe with the intention of inciting a peaceful end to the violence in the country, including the Gukurahundi Massacres. Joshua Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) was integrated into Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU),creating ZANU-PF (Patriotic Front). The motive was to form one united nationalist party as a means to prevent ethnic violence. | Africa |
| Kivu Conflict | | 21st | 2 June 2004 | Ongoing | The Kivu Conflict is a general term for the ongoing conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo taking place in the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces in the east of the country. This conflict both fed into and outgrew the Second Congo War, beginning between the military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda with a clash in 2004. The conflict has included severe human rights abuses including of children and sexual violence. | Africa |
| Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin | | 17th, 18th | 1689 | 1721 | The Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin was a war in the Edo Kingdom of Benin that started around the time that Ewuakpe succeeded to the throne. This King, or Oba, experienced a severe rebellion due to his ordering of human sacrifices at the death of his mother. His people would not supply him with food or labour and Benin city was sacked. At the time, the Dutch were trading Ivory in Benin and much of the documentation we have of the time is from these traders. | Africa |
| Ilemi Triangle Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1963 | Ongoing | The Ilemi Triangle conflict is a border dispute between Kenya and South Sudan over the Ilemi Triangle border, which is both oil and water rich. The border was drawn up in 1914 arbitrarily and lies at the north-western corner of Lake Turkana. The conflict began in 1963 when Kenya made claims to the area. Kenya and South Sudan have agreed to talks but skirmishes and flare ups erupt sporadically. | Africa |
| War in Somalia | Ethiopian Intervention in Soamlia | 21st | 2006 | 2009 | The War in Somalia, also known as the Ethiopian Intervention in Somalia and the Ethiopian Involvement in the Somali Civil War, was a conflict in Somalia that began in 2006 when the Ethiopian National Defence Forces (ENDF),backed by the United States, intervened in Somalia. Their purpose was to aid the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) against the Islamic Courts Union (ICU). This precipitated the insurgent campaign of the ICU, al-Shabaab and other Somali militias. Ethiopia’s military presence in Somalia finished in 2009 when a government of national unity was formed. | Africa |
| Ituri Conflict | | 21st | | Ongoing | The Ituri Conflict is an ongoing war between the Lendu and Hema people in the East of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The conflict between these two peoples has its origin in the colonial era when the Belgian administration gave power to the Hema and marginalised the Lendu people, who claim to be indigenous to the region. This marginalisation continued after independence when the Hema received agricultural concessions from President Mobutu Sese Seko. The conflict ran alongside the Second Congo War and has had a resurgence since 2017. | Africa |
| War in Darfur | Land Cruiser War | 21st | 25 February 2003 | 31 August 2020 | The War in Darfur, also known as the Land Cruiser War or the Darfur Conflict, was a war in Sudan between the Sudan Liberation Movement, joined by the Justice and Equality Movement, against the government of Sudan. The reason for the uprising was the rebel’s claim that the government disregarded the non-Arab population. In response to the insurrection, the government armed Arab militias, known as Janjaweed, to fight the rebels. As a result of the war, Bashir, the president of Sudan, was issued an arrest warrant for crimes against humanity and war crimes. | Africa |
| Oromo Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1973 | Ongoing | The Oromo Conflict is an ongoing conflict between the government of Ethiopia and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF). The OLF are a separatist group, with an armed wing called the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA),who wish to establish an independent state of Oromia due to prejudiced attitudes toward the Oromo people, especially during the reign of Haile Selassie when the Oromo language was banned. The conflict has been ongoing for 50 years with instances of a violent uprising in 2021 most recently. | Africa |
| Western Togoland Rebellion | Ewe Independence Movement | 21st | 2020 | Ongoing | The Western Togoland Rebellion, also known as the Ewe Independence Movement, is a secessionist insurgency in Ghana. The revolt is led by the Western Togoland Restoration Front (WTRF) whose demands are centred around the independence of former British Togoland. WTRF was formed in 2019 and carried out a unilateral declaration of independence of Western Togoland the following year. The movement launched various attacks on police stations and arms depots, and riots also ensued. | Africa |
| Liberation of Réunion | Battle of Réunion | 20th | 28 November 1942 | | The Liberation of Réunion, also known as the Battle of Réunion, was a conflict in the island of Réunion, part of the Mascarene Islands. The conflict consisted of an invasion by the Free French Naval Forces at Saint-Denis. The island was under the control of the Vichy regime at the time but the invasion by the Free French, in the Leopard destroyer warship, toppled this administration and aligned the island with the Allies during World War II. Later, in 1946, Réunion became a French overseas territory. | Africa |
| 1936 Uprising in Spanish Guinea | | 20th | | October 1936 | The 1936 Uprising in Spanish Guinea was a conflict that took place as part of the Spanish Civil War in Equatorial Guinea. The disagreement was about governance of the island and took place between Republicans and Nationalists, the Nationalists won the island in October when a Nationalist ship travelling from the Canary Islands, called the Ciudad de Mahon, arrived at Fernando Poo. The ship was used to shell Bata, a port city. The remaining Republicans fled to French Congo, Gabon or were extradited back to Spain the following month. | Africa |
| Battle of Dimawe | | 19th | August 1852 | August 1852 | The Battle of Dimawe was a conflict in what is now Botswana between the Botswana tribes of Bakwena, Bahurutshe, Balete and Batlokwa against the Boers of Transvaal. The conflict started when the Boers followed a group of Bahurutshe slaves who had escaped their work in the corn fields pulling ploughs. The effort against the Boers was led by Kgosi Sechele whose army rolled large stones from atop the Dimawe hill in order to kill the Boer men. Accounts do not make clear how long the battle lasted but it is clear that the Boers were defeated. | Africa |
| Insurgency in Cabo Delgado | | 21st | 5 October 2017 | Ongoing | The Insurgency in Cabo Delgado is an ongoing conflict in Mozambique’s northernmost province between the government and the Islamist group, Al-Shabaab. This was partially prompted by the discovery of natural gas fields in the area, and much of the fighting is taking place near to port towns where major offshore liquified natural gas projects are underway. Atrocities have been committed by both the government forces and Al-Shabaab, and many have died or been displaced. | Africa |
| 2012 Kufra Conflict | Battle for Kufra | 21st | 12 February 2012 | 1 July 2012 | The 2012 Kufra conflict, also known as the Battle for Kufra, was a conflict in Kufra that began in 2012 and resurged in 2015. Kufra is an oasis town in the southeastern Libyan desert. The conflict was largely fought between the Arab Bedouin Zawaya Tribe and the Tebu tribes, but also brought in Tebu from Chad and Sudan. Given its location on the roads to Chad and Sudan, Kufra is of strategic importance in the smuggling of goods and peoples. | Africa |
| First Libyan Civil war | Libyan Revolt of 2011 | 21st | 15 February 2011 | 23 October 2011 | The First Libyan Civil War, also known as the Libyan Revolt of 2011, started in February 2011 amid a wave of popular protest in the Middle East and North Africa, known as the Arab Spring. Protestors called for the end of Qaddafi’s regime and the release of political prisoners. The Libyan authorities used lethal force against protestors and attacked them with tanks, artillery warplanes and helicopter gunships. Qaddafi blamed the uprising on outside actors. NATO troops were sent into Libya and the fighting continued until October when Qaddafi fled to Algeria. | Africa |
| Second Libyan Civil war | | 21st | 16 May 2014 | 23 October 2020 | The Second Libyan Civil war was a conflict fought mainly between the Tobruk administration, led by Haftar in the east, and the Government of National Accord (GNA),led by Sarraj in Tripoli. Libya, a country rich in oil, never recovered from the uprising of 2011 and the fall of Qaddafi. Power was split between the two parties and although the GNA was officially recognised as the Libyan government by the UN, it did not hold actual power on the ground. The war ended after a long peace process in October 2020, but as of 2023 elections in Libya are yet to take place. | Africa |