| Treaty of Versailles | | 20th | 28 June 1919 | | The Treaty of Versailles, also called the Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany, was a peace treaty signed in Versailles, France, that officially ended WWI. The treaty was signed between Germany and the Allies, including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. China was involved in the Treaty of Versailles as one of the Allied powers as Chinese labourers were used by the Allies in various capacities during the war. The treaty was extremely harsh on Germany and has been seen as a significant factor in the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of WWII. | Europe |
| First World War | Great War | 20th | 28 July 1914 | 11 November 1918 | The First World War, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict involving over 30 nations. Origins of the war are complex; following years of diplomatic tension and shifting balance of power between European empires, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand led the Austro-Hungarian Empire to declare war on Serbia, and to pursue German support against Russian military intervention. Russia supported Serbia as it was seeking Balkan control and military advantage over Germany and Austria-Hungary. | Europe |
| Treaty of Versailles | | 20th | 28 June 1919 | | The Treaty of Versailles was one of three peace treaties signed at the Paris Peace Conference. It brought a close to the war between Germany and most Allied Powers. The treaty stipulated the forced disarmament of Germany, including restricting the size of its army and munitions manufacture. Rhineland was made a demilitarized zone according to the treaty, which Germany was forced to sign. Germany later violated this agreement. | Europe |
| Treaty of Saint-Germain | Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye | 20th | 10 September 1919 | | The Treaty of Saint-Germain provided peace terms between the Allied Nations and Austria-Hungary. It formally dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire and assigned the new Republic of Austria (along with other Central Powers) responsibility for starting the conflict. The treaty also restricted the size of the new Republic’s army, provided for war reparations to the Allied Nations, and created independent Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. | Europe |
| Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine | | 20th | 27 November 1919 | | The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine provided peaceful terms between the Allied nations and Bulgaria. The Treaty ordered the payment of war reparations and the return of property seized through Bulgarian military occupation during the war. It also restricted the size of the Bulgarian army and required Bulgaria to cede various territories. | Europe |
| Treaty of Trianon | Dictate of Trianon | 20th | 4 June 1920 | | The Treaty of Trianon, also known as the Dictate of Trianon, provided peace terms between the Allied nations and Hungary (an independent state following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). It restricted the size of Hungary’s army and drastically reduced the size of its former territory, leaving it a landlocked state. The treaty also stipulated that Hungary pay war reparations to the Allied nations. The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision started immediately after. | Europe |
| Treaty of Sèvres | Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey | 20th | 10 August 1920 | | The Treaty of Sèvres, the full name of which is the Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers and Turkey, set out terms of peace between the Allied nations and the Ottoman Empire. It began the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, allocating to Allied nations most territory not inhabited by Turkish people. Other provisions included granting the Allied forces control of the Ottoman Empire’s finances and restrictions concerning the size of the Ottoman Empire’s army. | Europe |
| Second World War | | 20th | 1 September 1939 | 2 September 1945 | The Second World War was a global conflict that was primarily triggered by the invasion of Poland by Germany. In response, the British Empire and France declared war on Germany. The invasion of Poland was the result of years of aggressive territorial expansion by Nazi Germany, pursued under the guise of restoring Germany to a level of economic and political stability considered ‘lost’ under the Treaty of Versailles. The Allies sought to end German military aggression and its imperialist ambitions. | Europe |
| Treaty of San Francisco | Treaty of Peace with Japan | 20th | 8 September 1951 | | The Treaty of San Francisco, also known as the Treaty of Peace with Japan, provided the terms of peace between Allied nations and Japan in the wake of the Second World War. The agreement stipulated that Japan pay war reparations to the Allies and former prisoners of war, while ending Allied military occupation of Japan. | Europe |
| Greek Civil War | | 20th | 1944 | 1949 | The Greek Civil War broke out between rival resistances to Axis occupation in Greece, each opposing rule by the exiled monarchist government. Resistance groups included the communist National Liberation Front (which received some support from the USSR and Yugoslavia) and the anti-communist National Greek Republican League (covertly supported by the British). These forces clashed following the German retreat from Greece in September 1944 and ended in the defeat of the Communists. | Europe |
| Treaty of Paris with Italy | | 20th | 10 February 1947 | | The Treaty of Paris with Italy was a peace treaty signed between Italy and the Allied nations following the Second World War. The Treaty stipulated that Italy was to make war reparations to specific Allied nations, and indicated several territorial changes that included the transfer of former Italian territories as well as the renunciation of claims to other territories. The treaty also restricted the size of Italy’s armed forces and the manufacture of certain ammunition. | Europe |
| Saxon Wars | | 8th, 9th | 772 | 804 | The Saxon Wars were a series of conflicts arising out of efforts by the Carolingian Empire (under Charles the Great) to conquer and claim Saxony. Charles sought to convert Saxony to Christianity and recruited Anglo-Saxon missionaries from England to help achieve this alongside his campaigns. The Saxon rebellions sought to defend their native religions, led by Widukind, who ultimately converted and was baptized in 785, concluding much of the conflict – although revolts continued until 804. | Europe |
| Roman Conquest of Britain | | 1st | 43 AD | 84 AD | The Roman Conquest of Britain was a conflict between the Roman Empire, led by Emperor Claudius, and resistance by Celtic Britons. Contact and trade with the Roman Empire had increased before the invasion, and Claudius invaded under the pretext of restoring exiled king Verica. However, his motivation for the Conquest lay partly in seeking to secure his imperial leadership following the murder of his nephew Gaius in AD 41 and the promise of natural resources. | Europe |
| Norman Conquest | | 11th | 1066 | 1071 | The Norman Conquest was the invasion and occupation of present-day England by William, Duke of Normandy. William sought to assert a claim to the English throne based on his relationship with Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, who had previously been exiled in Normandy. Edward was succeeded by Harold II, who led English forces against William’s invasion, culminating in the Battle of Hastings. Following Harold’s death and defeat at Hastings, William became king. | Europe |
| Saxon Rebellion | Saxon Uprising | 11th | 1073 | 1075 | The Saxon Rebellion, also known as the Saxon Uprising, was a conflict between the Holy Roman Empire, under Henry IV, and rebel Saxons. Saxon nobility advanced upon Henry IV at the Imperial Palace of Goslar in June 1073 to discuss allegations of Henry’s abuse of power, but Henry refused them an audience. These allegations and the desire for a ruler who was easier for the Saxon nobility to influence motivated the Saxons to displace Henry as king, and Henry sought to defend his claim to the throne. | Europe |
| First Scottish War of Independence | | 13th, 14th | 1296 | 1328 | The First War of Scottish Independence occurred between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England. It began with the English invasions of Scotland, following the discovery by English King Edward of the ‘Auld Alliance’ - a Franco-Scottish pact promising Scotland’s support of France, in the event of an English invasion. The Scottish fought to retain the independence of Scotland, and the war ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, which recognised Scotland’s independence under Robert the Bruce. | Europe |
| Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton | | 14th | 17 March 1328 | | The Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton provided peace terms between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England following the First War of Scottish Independence. It recognised Scotland’s independence, the rightful claim of King Robert the Bruce and his heirs to the Scottish throne. It also established a border between Scotland and England. | Europe |
| Second War of Scottish Independence | | 14th | 1332 | 1357 | The Second War of Scottish Independence was a conflict between the Kingdoms of Scotland and England. The conflict was provoked by a competing claim to the Scottish throne by Edward Balliol, supported by King Edward III of England. With English support, Balliol invaded Scotland by sea, continuing to besiege various towns. Fighting continued on and off for many years until Balliol relinquished his claim to the Scottish throne in January 1356, and the war concluded with the Treaty of Berwick. | Europe |
| Treaty of Berwick | | 14th | 1357 | | The Treaty of Berwick was an agreement between the Kingdoms of England and Scotland following the Second Scottish War of Independence. The treaty stipulated that the English would release King David II, the rightful king of Scotland, in exchange for a ransom. Heavy taxation was imposed on the country to cover the ransom, which, combined with the cost of wars and the impact of the Black Death, meant the Scottish economy was suffering. | Europe |
| Byzantine Civil War | | 13th | 1321 | 1328 | The Byzantine Civil War was a conflict over control of the Byzantine Empire, fought between the existing emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos and his grandson Andronikos III Palaiologos. Andronikos III leveraged discontent with his grandfather’s rule and fighting, resulting in an early peace agreement in 1321 that recognised Andronikos III as co-emperor. A new conflict later emerged between the co-emperors. Andronikos III captured Constantinople, and Andronikos II abdicated. | Europe |
| Troubles | | 20th | 1968 | 1998 | The Troubles describes a period of conflict between Northern Ireland and England. The causes of the conflict are complex but principally concerned a split between Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists; the latter sought an independent Ireland governed outside of British control. Fighting occurred between nationalist and unionist paramilitary forces; the British provided counter-insurgency and often violent repression of nationalist sentiment (as in Bloody Sunday, 1972). | Europe |
| Good Friday Agreement | Belfast Agreement | 20th | 10 April 1998 | | The Good Friday Agreement, also known as the Belfast Agreement, was signed between the governments of the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and political parties in Northern Ireland. The agreement set out the terms of peace between unionists and nationalists in Northern Ireland and is generally considered to mark the formal end of the Troubles. The agreement laid out a framework for power-sharing in Northern Ireland and devolved certain powers from the United Kingdom Parliament to a new political assembly in Belfast. | Europe |
| Revolt of Silken Thomas | Kildare Rebellion | 16th | 1534 | 1535 | The Revolt of Silken Thomas, also known as the Kildare Rebellion, was a conflict between Irish forces, led by Thomas Fitzgerald, and the forces of King Henry VIII, who was Lord of Ireland. Fitzgerald publicly renounced his allegiance to the king on 11 June 1534, leveraging concerns that the English Reformation would be imported to and imposed upon Ireland. In response, King Henry VIII sought to consolidate power in Ireland, fearing that Fitzgerald’s success would make Ireland vulnerable to French conquest. | Europe |
| Dacke War | | 16th | 1542 | 1543 | The Dacke War was an uprising by Swedish peasants led by Nils Dacke, emerging out of dissatisfaction with Swedish King Gustav Vasa’s policies around tax collection and the promotion of Lutheranism. The King ordered soldiers to fight the peasant army, and the Swedish government halted all supplies to territories reached by Dacke and his army. The Dacke-led rebels were finally defeated, and the uprising was quelled. | Europe |
| First Desmond Rebellion | | 16th | 1569 | 1573 | The First Desmond Rebellion was an uprising in Munster in Ireland between the FitzGerald Dynasty and its allies against the English government and Crown. It emerged out of concern around the latter’s growing power, especially regarding the Crown intervening in private Irish wars. Seeking to recover the lost prestige of the FitzGerald Dynasty in the Kingdom of Ireland, James Fitzmaurice launched a rebellion against the presence of the British in the south of Ireland. The English finally crushed the rebellion. | Europe |
| First Tarnovo Uprising | | 16th | 1598 | 1598 | The First Tarnovo Uprising was the rebellion of Bulgarian forces against Ottoman imperial rule. Religious leaders, Bulgarian nobility and local merchants organised the uprising, with support and allyship from rulers in present-day Romania and the Habsburg monarchy. The latter of which conflicted with the Ottomans. The rebellion was quickly and brutally vanquished, and around 16,000 Bulgarians subsequently fled Ottoman-ruled regions to establish Bulgarian communities in present-day Romania. | Europe |
| Second Tarnovo Uprising | | 17th | 1686 | 1686 | The Second Tarnovo Uprising was the rebellion of Bulgarian forces against Ottoman imperial rule. Bulgarian noble Rostislav Stratimirovic built an allyship with Russia and was declared Prince of Bulgaria. However, Ottoman authorities quickly and brutally suppressed the rebels. Due to the scarcity of sources, some historians have suggested the uprising is mythical, circulated by Russia to serve its political interests and anti-Ottoman position. | Europe |
| Peace of Prague | Imperial-Saxon Treaty | 17th | 1635 | | The Peace of Prague, also known as the Imperial-Saxon Treaty, provided the terms of peace between Saxony and the Holy Roman Empire, effectively ending Saxony’s participation in the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty is perceived as ending the religious underpinnings of the Thirty Years’ War, which continued as a conflict of foreign powers. The treaty prohibited formal alliances between states within the Holy Roman Empire, requiring their armies to be subsumed into the Imperial Army. | Europe |
| First Swedish War on Bremen | | 17th | 1654 | 1654 | The First Swedish War on Bremen was a conflict between the Swedish Empire and the town of Bremen over the town’s imperial rulership. Sweden claimed Bremen was part of its Bremen-Verden dominion, while Bremen claimed to be part of the Holy Roman Empire. The war involved Swedish occupation but no major military confrontation; the town pledged allegiance to Swedish King Charles X Gustav, and both sides signed the Treaty of Stade. | Europe |
| Treaty of Stade | First Stade Recess | 17th | 1654 | | The Treaty of Stade, sometimes known as the First Stade Recess, provided the terms of peace between the Swedish Empire and the town of Bremen following the First Swedish War on Bremen. The treaty stated that Bremen would make territorial concessions to the Swedish Empire, pledge allegiance to King Charles X Gustav and observe Swedish imperial foreign policy. | Europe |
| Second Swedish War on Bremen | | 17th | 1666 | 1666 | The Second Swedish War on Bremen occurred when the town of Bremen refused to pledge allegiance to Swedish King Chares X Gustav’s successor, Charles XI. By the summer of 1666, all of Bremen’s territories (bar the city itself) were occupied by Swedish troops. Sweden faced hesitation from its allies, especially France, who saw Bremen as a state of the Holy Roman Empire. Bremen gained allies from anti-Swedish factions such as the Dutch Republic, Denmark and the Electorate of Cologne. | Europe |
| Treaty of Habenhausen | Peace of Habenhausen | 17th | 15 November 1666 | | The Treaty of Habenhausen, also known as the Peace of Habenhausen, was a peace agreement between the Swedish Empire and the city of Bremen following the Swedish wars on Bremen. With the treaty, Bremen reserved the right to obey the Holy Roman Emperor while agreeing not to declare its Imperial immediacy in public documents before the year 1700. It also agreed to pay taxes to both the Swedish Crown and the Holy Roman Emperor. | Europe |
| Irish Confederate Wars | Eleven Years’ War | 17th | 1641 | Date contested | The Irish Confederate Wars, also known as the Eleven Years’ Wars, was a conflict between Catholic Irish confederates and English Protestant forces. The war began with an uprising of Irish Catholics who agitated against anti-Catholic discrimination, the confiscation and colonization of Irish land by the English Crown (the ‘Irish Plantations’),and the subordination of Irish governance under the English Parliament. English forces repressed the rebellion, primarily through a massacre of Ulster Catholics. | Europe |
| First Ormonde Peace | | 17th | 1646 | | The First Ormonde Peace provided an agreement between Irish Catholics and the English Crown following the Irish Confederate Wars. Under the peace, the Irish army would pledge to fight for the English Crown in return for a limited tolerance of Irish Catholicism. This, however, provoked a civil war in Catholic Ireland between the Moderate and Clerical factions of the Irish Confederacy. | Europe |
| Second Ormonde Peace | | 17th | 17 January 1649 | | The Second Ormonde Peace was a peace treaty signed by the leader of the Irish Royalists, the Marquess of Ormonde, and the Irish Confederates. In theory, it allowed for more religious freedom amongst Irish Catholics, but in practice demarcated Irish Catholicism as a tolerated group rather than a recognised organised religion. | Europe |
| Polish–Cossack–Tatar War | | 17th | 1666 | 1671 | The Polish–Cossack–Tatar War was a conflict between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire over control of Ukraine. The Cossack Hetmanate (a Cossack state in present-day central Ukraine) allied with the Ottoman Empire and Tatars to take control of Ukraine. The war preluded the Polish–Ottoman War. | Europe |
| First Kuruc Uprising | | 17th | 1672 | 1672 | The First Kuruc Uprising was a rebellion by anti-Habsburg insurgents, responding to religious and political persecution under Habsburg rule in the Kingdom of Hungary. The rebels comprised Protestants (who opposed the Habsburg’s Counter-Reformation efforts),nobles whose power was threatened by the Habsburg Court, and soldiers whose castles had been sacked by Habsburg generals. Hungarian persecution under the Habsburgs intensified, amplifying insurgents’ anti-Habsburg sentiment. | Europe |
| Rákóczi’s War of Independence | Rákóczi’s Uprising | 18th | 1703 | 1711 | Rákóczi’s War of Independence, also known as the Rákóczi Revolt, was a rebellion led by Hungarian nobles and progressives to overthrow the Habsburg rule in Hungary. The nobility positioned themselves against the Habsburgs when land previously confiscated from them by the Ottoman Empire would be returned only under the condition that 10% of the land’s worth be paid to the Habsburgs. Peasants joined the anti-Habsburg cause because of the hardships inflicted on them during years of war. | Europe |
| Treaty of Szatmár | Peace of Szatmár | 18th | 1711 | | The Treaty of Szatmár, also known as the Peace of Szatmár, provided the terms of peace between the House of Habsburg and the Hungarian rebels, formally ending The Rákóczi's War of Independence. According to the treaty, Charles I (as Habsburg Emperor) agreed to maintain the integrity of estates in Hungary and present-day Romania. Rebels were granted amnesty for their involvement in the war. | Europe |
| Franco-Dutch War | Dutch War | 17th | 1672 | 1678 | The Franco-Dutch War, also known as the Dutch War, was a conflict between France and the Dutch Republic (and their respective allies) over control of the Netherlands, which was under Dutch control. Louis XIV of France had spent years trying to weaken Dutch power through high tariffs and secret diplomacy and ultimately invaded the Dutch Republic with English naval support. However, attempts at consolidating French control were slowly thwarted, and the French were driven out of the Republic. | Europe |
| Treaty of Nijmegen | Peace of Nijmegen | 17th | 1678 | | The Treaty of Nijmegen, also known as the Peace of Nijmegen, was one of a series of Nijmegen treaties that provided terms of peace between France and its enemies following the Franco-Dutch War. The Treaty of Nijmegen, signed on 10 August 1678 between France and the Dutch Republic, is considered the most significant of the treaties. France gained advantages by arranging terms with each of its enemies separately. | Europe |
| Treaty of Fontainebleau | | 17th | 1679 | | The Treaty of Fontainebleau was one of a series of Nijmegen treaties that provided an agreement between France and its enemies following the Franco-Dutch War. Signed on 23 August and later on 2 September 1679, the treaty was between Denmark-Norway, France and the Swedish Empire. | Europe |
| Peace of Lund | | 17th | 1679 | | The Peace of Lund provided the terms of peace between Denmark–Norway and the Swedish Empire, following the Scanian War. Under the terms of the treaty, various Danish-occupied territories were to be returned to Sweden, a defence alliance was formed between the countries, and secret agreements of a 10-year mutual assistance alliance were made. | Europe |
| Treaty of the Pyrenees | | 17th | 7 November 1659 | | The Treaty of the Pyrenees provided the terms of peace between France and Spain, ending the Franco-Spanish War. Under the terms of the Treaty, France gained territories, including those villages north of the new Pyrenees border with Spain, in exchange for which France agreed to cut allegiances with the Portuguese and to renounce claims to Barcelona. Spain agreed to recognise the gains made by France in the Treaty of Westphalia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle | Treaty of Aachen | 17th | 2 May 1688 | | The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, also known as the Treaty of Aachen, was a peace treaty between France and Spain following the War of Devolution. The War of Devolution emerged from claims made by French King Louis XIV to territories he believed had passed to him through his marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain. Under the terms of the treaty, France returned various regions to Spain and retained others. | Europe |
| Truce of Ratisbon | Truce of Regensburg | 17th | 15 August 1684 | 1688 | The Treaty of Ratisborn, also known as the Truce of Regensburg, was a treaty between France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire following the War of the Reunions. France retained Luxembourg and Strasbourg and returned Kortrijk and Diksmuide to Spain. For France, the treaty protected territorial conquest for the duration of the truce; for France’s opponents, the treaty acted to consolidate political alliances. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Venetian War | Second Morean War | 18th | 1714 | 1718 | The Ottoman–Venetian War, also known as the Second Morean War, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice over control of territories the Ottoman Empire had previously had to concede. Venice sought to protect these territories as they formed part of the Venetian trade routes and sea power; the Ottoman Empire sought to reclaim these territories to consolidate their plan of conquering Europe. | Europe |
| Austro–Turkish War | | 18th | 1716 | 1718 | The Austro-Turkish War was a conflict between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire, emerging partly out of Ottoman dissatisfaction with the terms of the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz. Following the Ottoman conquest of Morea in the Ottoman-Venetian War and as guarantor of the Treaty of Karlowitz, Austria declared war on the Ottomans in April 1716. | Europe |
| Treaty of Passarowitz | Treaty of Požarevac | 18th | 21 July 1718 | | The Treaty of Passarowitz, also known as the Treaty of Požarevac, provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg monarchy, and the Republic of Venice. Under the terms of the treaty, the Ottomans ceded several territories to the Habsburg monarchy, including Belgrade and regions of present-day Bosnia, Serbia, Romania and Hungary. | Europe |
| Greek War of Independence | Greek Revolution | 19th | 1821 | 1832 | The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Greek revolutionaries, supported by the empires of Britain, France, and Russia. It was the result of growing Greek nationalism and a weakening Ottoman Empire, which had ruled Greece since the 15th century. The involvement of other European powers made a significant difference in helping Greece to become a sovereign power. | Europe |
| Bosnian Uprising | Great Bosnian Uprising | 19th | 1831 | Date and year unknown | The Bosnian Uprising, also known as the Great Bosnian Uprising, was a conflict between Bosnian rebels and the Ottoman Empire. The rebellion resulted from the Ottoman Empire’s abolition of the Janissaries warrior class of Balkan soldiers and noblemen and the transfer of certain Bosnian territories to Serbia under the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople. Bosnia subsequently declared independence and war on the Ottomans. | Europe |
| Treaty of Utrecht | Peace of Utrecht | 18th | 11 April 1713 | | The Treaty of Utrecht, or Peace of Utrecht, was a series of treaties that concluded the Spanish War of Succession. Several European states were included in the negotiations, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic. The first treaty signed at Utrecht was between France and Portugal on 7 November, followed by the truce between France and Savoy on 14 March 1714. A number of other treaties came out of the congress of Utrecht. | Europe |
| Truce of Nice | | 16th | 1538 | | The Truce of Nice was a ten-year truce between France and the Holy Roman Empire. Under the terms of the treaty, Turin remained under French control. Due to the intense personal dislike between King Francis I of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, mediator Pope Paul III was required to negotiate from room to room, so the two men did not meet. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zurich | | 19th | 10 November 1859 | | The Treaty of Zurich was the culmination of three separate treaties that provided the terms of peace between the Austrian and French Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, concluding the Second Italian War of Independence, also known as the Sardinian War. The French-Austrian Treaty and French-Sardinian Treaty ceded certain territories, whilst the third treaty signed by all parties agreed to peace between Austria and Sardinia. | Europe |
| Shkodër Uprising | | 19th | 1833 | 1833 | The Shkodër Uprising was a rebellion by Albanians from Shkodër in response to Ottoman imperial administrative policies relating to taxes and imperial privileges. The Albanian rebels requested a new Turkish governor, and in the process of negotiations in Istanbul, the city of Shkodër was besieged by Ottoman forces. By December 1833, concerned by the strength of Albanian rebels and parallel, emerging uprisings in the south of Albania, the Ottomans agreed to replace the governor. | Europe |
| Uprising of Dervish Cara | Albanian Revolt of 1844 | 19th | 1843 | 1844 | The Uprising of Dervish Cara, also known as the Albanian Revolt of 1843-1844, was a conflict between Albanian rebels and the Ottoman imperial army. The uprising emerged from agitation against modernisation policies known as the Tanzimat reforms. The reform modified government administration and military organisation and, in doing so, threatened the existing Albanian feudal military order and the regional power wielded by local leaders. | Europe |
| Kraków Uprising | Insurrection of 1846 | 19th | 1846 | 1846 | The Kraków Uprising, also known as the Insurrection of 1846, was a conflict between Polish rebels and the imperial powers that had orchestrated the Polish-Lithuanian partitions, especially the Austrian Empire. The uprising was triggered by the political writings and French utopian socialism adopted by Poles exiled from the ‘Stolen Lands’, who advocated for the emancipation of the Polish peasantry and an independent sovereign Poland. Although unsuccessful, Karl Marx praised the rebellion. | Europe |
| Hungarian Revolution | Hungarian War of Independence | 19th | 1848 | 1849 | The Hungarian Revolution, also known as the Hungarian War of Independence, was a conflict between Hungarian insurgents against the Habsburg Monarchy. The causes of the uprising were complex and various, subtly changing across the rebelling reasons, closely linked to other rebellions in Habsburg territories. However, the primary grievances were a crashing economy and poverty following the Napoleonic Wars, unconstitutional parliamentary reform, and calls for Hungarian independence. | Europe |
| Epirus Revolt | | 19th | 1854 | 1854 | The Epirus Revolt was a conflict between Epirote Greek rebels and the Ottoman Empire. The Revolt had been seen as an opportunistic effort of Greek inhabitants to claim land that did not fall within the boundaries of independent Greece but was inhabited by Greek people, whilst the Ottoman forces were preoccupied with the Crimean War. Prominent Greek military officials joined the cause, but the Revolt was suppressed by Ottoman, British and French forces. | Europe |
| Armistice of Villafranca | Treaty of Villafranca | 19th | 1859 | 1859 | The Armistice of Villafranca, also known as the Treaty of Villafranca di Verona, was an agreement between France and Austria. It concluded the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War, also known as the Second Italian War of Independence. Austria ceded most of Lombardy to France, which returned it to Sardinia, and rulers in Parma, Modena and Tuscany reclaimed their thrones. The terms of the treaty were further established in the 1859 Treaty of Zurich. | Europe |
| Treaty of Athens | | 20th | 14 November 1913 | | The Treaty of Athens was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Greece following the Balkan Wars. The Ottoman Empire ceded contested territories to Greece, recognised Greek sovereignty over others, and minority rights were granted to Turkish people living in newly-conquered Greek regions. | Europe |
| Treaty of Belgrade | Belgrade Peace | 18th | 18 September 1739 | | The Treaty of Belgrade, also known as the Belgrade Peace, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and the Habsburg Monarchy, following the Austro-Turkish War of 1737-1739 and the Russo-Turkish war of 1735-1739. Signed on 18 September 1739 at Belgrade, the settlement effectively ended the Kingdom of Serbia, which had existed since 1718, as that territory, amongst others, was ceded by the Habsburgs to the Ottomans. | Europe |
| Treaty of Niš | | 18th | 3 October 1739 | | The Treaty of Niš was a peace agreement between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire signed on 17 October 1676 in the town of Żurawno. The treaty marked the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1735-1739. Under its terms, Russia renounced its claims to Crimea and other territories in present-day Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine, while retaining the right to a port at Azov on the Don River. | Europe |
| Treaty of Żurawno | | 17th | 17 October 1676 | | The Treaty of Żurawno was a peace settlement between the Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, following the final stage of the Polish-Ottoman War that had lasted 1672-1676. The agreement revised the earlier Treaty of Buchach, removing the obligation on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire. It also granted the Lipka Tatars, a Turkic ethnic group, personal autonomy to choose which of the two signatories they chose to serve. | Europe |
| Treaty of Buchach | Treaty of Buczacz | 17th | 18 October 1672 | | The Treaty of Buchach, also known as the Treaty of Buczacz, provided the terms of peace between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, following the first phase of the Polish-Ottoman War. Under the terms of the treaty, certain territories were ceded to the Ottomans, whilst others were recognized as Cossack territory to be administered under an Ottoman protectorate. The Commonwealth was obliged to pay the Empire 22,000 thaler as annual tribute. | Europe |
| Locarno Treaties | Pact of Locarno | 20th | 1 December 1925 | | The Locarno Treaties, also known as the Pact of Locarno, set out to guarantee peace between present-day Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy. The agreement indicated the inviolability of the frontiers established in the Treaty of Versailles, and Great Britain and Italy agreed to intervene defensively against any military invasion of the borders. The Rhineland was demilitarised, and international dispute resolution procedures were agreed upon. | Europe |
| Treaty of Adrianople | Treaty of Edirne | 18th | 24 June 1713 | | The Treaty of Adrianople, also known as the Treaty of Edirne, provided the terms of peace between the Tsardom of Russia and the Ottoman Empire, affirming the 1711 Treaty of the Pruth. Since this 1711 treaty, the pro-war movement in Constantinople had gained popularity in the Ottoman Empire and the peace therefore needed to be reaffirmed in the form of a second treaty two years later. This 1713 Treaty of Adrianople maintained peace for the following 25 years. | Europe |
| Treaty of the Pruth | Prut Treaty | 18th | 23 July 1711 | | The Treaty of the Pruth, also known as the Prut Treaty, provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Russian, ending the Russo-Turkish War. The treaty meant significant political and territorial gains for the Ottomans, including the return of the Azov Fortress, the demotion of several newly constructed Russian fortresses, and the Tsar’s guarantee to stop interfering in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth affairs. Lastly, the agreement granted King Charles XII safe passage on his return to Sweden. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zaragoza | Capitulation of Zaragoza | 16th | 22 April 1529 | | The Treaty of Zaragoza, also known as the Capitulation of Zaragoza, established peace between Castile and Portugal. The treaty was designed to prevent clashes between the signatory powers over control the lucrative Spice Islands (now Indonesia’s Malukus). The issue had been ongoing since 1520, when expeditions from both kingdoms reached the Pacific Ocean. The treaty laid down borders between the two, with Portugal paying for having the Maluku Islands within its domain, but included a clause which stated that the agreement would be undone if at any time the Habsburg emperor Charles V wished to revoke it. | Europe |
| Treaty of Badajoz I | Peace of Badajoz I | 19th | 6 June 1801 | | The Treaty of Badajoz I, also known as the Peace of Badajoz I, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided peace between Portugal and Spain, and Portugal and France, respectively. Under the terms of the Spanish-Portuguese treaty, Portugal ceded the border town of Olivenza and Almeida to Spain, while also closing its ports to British ships. | Europe |
| Treaty of Badajoz II | Peace of Badajoz II | 19th | 6 June 1801 | | The Treaty of Badajoz II, also known as the Peace of Badajoz II, was the second of two treaties of the same name that provided peace between Portugal and Spain, and Portugal and France, respectively. Under the terms of the Franco-Portuguese treaty, the border of existing French territory in South America was expanded to include parts of northern Brazil, representing significant territorial gains for France. The treaty also closed Portuguese ports to British ships, provided access for the import of French woollen goods, which was Portugal‘s main import from Britain, and a secret clause guaranteed indemnity payments to France. | Europe |
| 1918 Treaty of Bucharest | | 20th | 7 May 1918 | | The 1918 Treaty of Bucharest established peace between Romania and the Central Powers, following the 1917 Romanian Campaign during the First World War. All signatories agreed to resume diplomatic and consular relations, and provisions were made for the demobilisation of Romanian forces. Austria-Hungary was given control over the Carpathian Mountain passes, while Romanian oil wells were to be leased to Germany for a period of 90 years. | Europe |
| 1812 Treaty of Bucharest | | 19th | 28 May 1812 | | The 1812 Treaty of Bucharest provided the terms of peace between Russia and the Ottoman Empire following the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia was permitted to annex territory in present-day Moldova and Ukraine, while being required to cede Wallachia in present-day Romania and parts of Russian-occupied Moldova. The treaty also granted autonomy to the Serbs, who had been rebelling against the Ottoman Empire, although this was not realised in practice. | Europe |
| Treaty of Evoramonte | Concession of Evoramonte | 19th | 26 May 1834 | | The Treaty of Evoramonte, also known as the Concession of Evoramonte, set out to establish peace between the Portuguese Constitutionalists and supporters of King Miguel I, also called the Miguelites, ending the 1828-1834 civil war in Portugal. Under the terms of the Treaty, a general amnesty for all political crimes was extended, military officers could retain properly-obtained ranks, King Miguel I was exiled from the Kingdom of Portugal, and any military support for him was to be disbanded. | Europe |
| Treaty of Tartu, Finland-Russia | Treaty of Dorpat | 20th | 14 October 1920 | | The Treaty of Tartu, Finland-Russia, also known as the Treaty of Dorpat, was one of two treaties of the same name providing the terms of peace between Russia and Finland, and Russia and Estonia, respectively. The Finnish-Russian treaty confirmed the Finnish-Soviet Russian border following the 1918 Finnish Civil War, and Finland was granted the harbour of Petsamo. North Ingria was conceded to Russia, and the outer islands in the Finnish Gulf were demilitarised. | Europe |
| Treaty of Tartu, Estonia-Russia | | 20th | 2 February 1920 | | The Treaty of Tartu, Estonia-Russia, also known as the Treaty of Dorpat, was one of two treaties of the same name providing the terms of peace between Russia and Finland, and Russia and Estonia, respectively. The Estonian-Russian Treaty ended the Estonian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Estonia’s eastern border was confirmed, Soviet Russia recognised the independence of Estonia, and diplomatic relations were established between the two states. The treaty was the first to recognise the Soviet government. | Europe |
| 1861-1862 Montenegrin-Ottoman War | | 19th | 1861 | 31 August 1862 | The 1861-1862 Montenegrin-Ottoman War was a conflict between the Principality of Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire, following an uprising by Montenegrins in Herzegovina against Ottoman suzerainty. The start date of the conflict is unclear, but the war ended with the Convention of Scutari on 31 August 1862. | Europe |
| Convention of Scutari | | 19th | 31 August 1862 | | The Convention of Scutari provided the terms of peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Principality of Montenegro. The terms of the treaty were fairly generous to the Montenegrin Principality, with the aim of reducing the possibility of any further unrest. Under the terms of the treaty, Montenegro was recognised as an Ottoman vassal state, and a weapons import ban was placed on it. | Europe |
| Second Balkan War | | 20th | 29 June 1913 | 10 August 1913 | The Second Balkan War was a conflict between the Kingdom of Bulgaria on the one side, and Greece, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Ottoman Empire, on the other. Following the First Balkan War, the King of Bulgaria felt that Bulgaria had not gained the territories it was owed, especially that retained by Serbia. In staking these claims, Bulgaria was seen to be disregarding earlier peace agreements between the Balkan League states, thus alienating itself from previous allies. | Europe |
| 1913 Treaty of Bucharest | | 20th | 10 August 1913 | | The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest provided the terms of peace between Romania, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria following the Second Balkan War. Under the terms of the treaty, Romania, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro made different degrees of territorial gain, while Bulgaria agreed to disband its fortresses in specific regions. Bulgaria was, however, also granted part of Macedonia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople | Treaty of Istanbul | 20th | 29 September 1913 | | The Treaty of Constantinople, also known as the Treaty of Istanbul, established peace between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria following the Second Balkan War. The treaty worked alongside the Treaty of Bucharest, which made peace arrangements between Bulgaria and the other opposing forces during the Second Balkan War. Under the terms of the treaty, Adrianople was conceded to the Ottomans, prisoners of war were released on both sides, and border armies were to be demobilised. | Europe |
| Cretan Revolt | Great Cretan Revolution | 19th | 21 August 1866 | 20 January 1869 | The Cretan Revolt, also known as the Great Cretan Revolution, was a conflict between Cretan rebels and the Ottoman imperial rulers of Crete. The rebellion was sparked largely out of resentment at what was considered to be a failure to implement civil and religious equality between Cretan Christians and Muslims, the imposition of new taxes, and the interference of the Crete ruler Hekim Ismail Pasha in what was considered to be a matter for the council of elders. | Europe |
| Third Italian War of Independence | | 19th | 20 June 1866 | 12 August 1866 | The Third War of Italian Independence was a conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire. Italy had been in a military alliance with Prussia since April 1866 and thus when Prussia attacked Austrian allies, Italy offered its military support and declared war on Austria. Doing so also offered Italy the opportunity to take present-day Veneto, Friuli, and the city of Mantua, which it was ultimately successful in doing. | Europe |
| 1866 Peace of Prague | 1866 Treaty of Prague | 19th | 23 August 1866 | | The 1866 Peace of Prague, also known as the 1866 Treaty of Prague, provided the terms of peace between the Austrian Empire and Prussia following the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. Under the terms of the treaty, Prussia was recognised as the major power in northern Germany and as the leader of the new North German Confederation. Germany annexed a number of territories, and Austria was made to pay war indemnity of 40 million thaler. | Europe |
| Serbian-Ottoman Wars | Serbian Wars for Independence | 19th | 30 June 1876 | 5 February 1878 | The Serbian-Ottoman Wars, also known as the Serbian Wars for Independence, were two related conflicts fought between 1876-1878 between the Principality of Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. The conflicts were both caused by calls for an independent Serbia. Both phases were concluded by 5 February 1878, although different sources offer alternative dates depending on whether the wars are described as a single overall conflict or two distinct wars. | Europe |
| Fenian Rising | Éirí Amach na bhFíníní | 19th | 5 March 1867 | 6 March 1867 | The Fenian Rising, also known as Éirí Amach na bhFíníní, was a rebellion by Irish nationalists, led by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, against British rule in Ireland. The cause of the conflict was broadly the ongoing agitation for self-rule in Ireland, but was sparked by the suppression of the Irish People newspaper in September 1865, which had been a major channel for broadcasting Fenian nationalist politics, and the arrest of four major Fenian leaders. | Europe |
| 1878 Treaty of Berlin | | 19th | 13 July 1878 | | The Treaty of Berlin, also known as the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, provided the terms of peace between these parties following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The agreement was drawn up to replace the Treaty of San Stefano, which had caused an international crisis out of concerns amongst European powers that it might allow for Russian imperial expansion. | Europe |
| April Uprising | Bulgarian Uprising | 19th | April 1876 | | The April Uprising, also known as the Bulgarian Uprising, was a conflict between Bulgarians and the Ottoman Empire. What began as a small revolution in Herzegovina against Ottoman rule spread across other Bulgarian villages and into the Balkans. Following the emancipation of the Bulgarian Church, and recognition of Bulgarians as a distinct religious group, a sense of nationalism was aroused amongst the public. The revolution was suppressed through the massacre known as the Bulgarian Horrors. | Europe |
| Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising | Ilinden (St. Elijah’s Day) Uprising | 20th | 2 August 1903 | October 1903 | The Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising, also known as the Ilinden (St. Elijah’s Day) Uprising, was a rebellion by the Bulgarian people against Ottoman imperial rule, especially following the decision at the 1878 Berlin Congress to keep Macedonia and Southern Thrace within the Ottoman’s domain. The Uprising was organised by a network of revolutionary committees, and was quickly and brutally crushed by Ottoman forces. | Europe |
| Treaty of Brest-Litovsk | Treaty of Brest | 20th | 3 March 1918 | | The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, also known as the Treaty of Brest, was one of two treaties of the same name that provided the terms of peace between the Central Powers and each of Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian Republic, respectively, following the First World War. Under the terms of the treaty with Russia, Russia ceded almost half its European territory. Some countries, including Ukraine, became independent states, while others were ceded to Germany, Romania, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire. | Europe |
| Soviet-Lithuanian Peace Treaty | Moscow Peace Treaty | 20th | 12 July 1920 | | The Soviet-Lithuanian Peace Treaty, also known as the Moscow Peace Treaty, provided the terms of peace between the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and Lithuania, following the Lithuanian-Soviet War, also known as the First Lithuanian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia recognised the independence of Lithuania, and in a secret article Lithuania guaranteed unrestricted movement of the RSFSR’s troops in Lithuania during the ongoing Polish-Soviet War. | Europe |
| Polish-Lithuanian War | Third Lithuanian War of Independence | 20th | Dates contested | Dates contested | The Polish-Lithuanian War, also known as the Third Lithuanian War of Independence, was a conflict between Lithuania and Poland. Lithuanian historians tend to describe it as the third war of independence fought by Lithuania between May 1919 and November 1920; however Polish historians have tended to describe it as a shorter conflict, lasting only September to October 1920. The conflict centred around control of Vilnius, Lithuania’s capital. | Europe |
| Łódź Insurrection | June Days | 20th | 21 June 1905 | 25 June 1905 | The Łódź insurrection, also known as the June Days, was a conflict between Polish workers in Łódź and the Russian Empire. Łódź workers began striking before the insurrection began, but the start of the uprising was not formally organised and took Polish revolutionary groups by surprise. Primary grievances were the crumbling Polish economy, in light of Russia’s war with Japan, and wider calls for Polish independence. | Europe |
| Finnish Civil War | | 20th | 27 January 1918 | 15 May 1918 | The Finnish Civil War was a conflict between Bolshevist Russia-backed Finnish Social Democrats (called ‘the Reds’) and the German Empire-backed conservative Senate (called ‘the Whites’). The conflict emerged out of a fight for leadership in the Finnish state during the transition of Finland from a Russian imperial territory to an independent nation. Much of the conflict represented a wider debate over what might be a post-colonial Finnish identity. | Europe |
| Easter Rising | Easter Rebellion | 20th | 24 April 1916 | 29 April 1916 | The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was a conflict between Irish nationalists and the British. The action was planned by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, supported by the Irish Citizen Army and the Sinn Féin party. Originally planned to be a nationwide revolution, the Easter Rising was ultimately confined to Dublin. Following the declaration of the Irish Republic on 24 April 1916, British forces arrived to quash the revolt, leading to surrender by Irish forces five days later, on 29 April. | Europe |
| Treaty of Lausanne | | 20th | 24 July 1923 | | The Treaty of Lausanne, also known as the Treaty of Peace and Exchange of War Prisoners with Turkey, provided the terms of peace between the British Empire, France, Japan, Italy, Greece, present-day Romania and present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Slovenia, Kosovo, and Turkey. The treaty defined the borders of the Turkish state, with Turkey renouncing claims to its former Arab territories, while the Allies dropped claims for spheres of influence in Turkey. | Europe |
| Peace of Riga | Treaty of Riga | 20th | 18 March 1921 | | The Treaty of Riga, also known as the Peace of Riga, provided the terms of peace between Poland and the Soviet Russia following the 1919-1920 Russo-Polish War. The treaty set the countries’ mutual border, giving parts of present-day Belarus and Ukraine to Poland. Poland was guaranteed financial compensation for the economic input it gave Russia during the Partitions of Poland. | Europe |
| Second Lithuanian War of Independence | War Against the Bermontians | 20th | June 1919 | December 1919 | The Second Lithuanian War of Independence, also known as the War against the Bermontians, was a conflict between Lithuania and the West Russian Volunteer Army, also known as the Bermontians. The latter were a German-Russian military organisation, in essence a hangover from an article in the Compiègne Armistice that provided for German imperial troops to remain in the Baltic provinces. Their goal was to maintain German power in the Baltic regions. | Europe |
| Estonian War of Independence | Estonian Liberation War | 20th | 28 November 1918 | 2 February 1920 | The Estonian War of Independence, also known as the Estonian Liberation War, was a conflict between the Republic of Estonia and the Russian Empire. Russia saw Estonia as a possible key part of the future workers’ revolution, whilst Estonia sought to retain its independence. After an initial Russian invasion on Estonian soil, their army was repelled by Estonian forces. In the Treaty of Tartu that followed the conflict, Russia recognised Estonia’s independence. | Europe |
| Latvian-Soviet Peace Treaty | | 20th | 11 August 1920 | | The Latvian-Soviet Peace Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Riga or the Peace of Riga of 1921, provided the terms of peace between Latvia and present-day Russia following the Latvian War of Independence. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia recognised Latvia’s independence. The agreement contained provisions for reparations, however, in practice, much of the Latvian industrial infrastructure had been claimed and removed to Russia, making it impossible for Latvia to fully recover its worth. | Europe |
| Lithuanian-Soviet War | First Lithuanian War of Independence | 20th | 12 December 1918 | 31 August 1919 | The Lithuanian-Soviet War, also known as the First Lithuanian War of Independence, was a conflict between newly-independent Lithuania – especially its nationalist populace – and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR). The RSFSR invaded Lithuania in December 1918 and slowly occupied many towns across the country, with the aim of creating a network of Soviet Republics across Eastern Europe. Lithuanian nationalists sought to defend the country’s newly independent status. | Europe |
| Russo-Ukrainian War | | 21st | 20 February 2014 | Ongoing | The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War started when Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine. Earlier in 2014, civil unrest and several demonstrations in Ukraine forced the pro-Russian Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych to step down. This in turn led to demonstrations by pro-Russian groups in the eastern and southern parts of Ukraine and prompted Russia to invade and annexe Crimea. Tensions escalated into a war when Russia launched a full scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022. | Europe |
| Anglo-Irish War | Irish War of Independence | 20th | 21 January 1919 | 11 July 1921 | The Anglo-Irish war, also known in Ireland as the Irish War of Independence, was fought in Ireland between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and British Crown forces. It was initiated by a small number of young Irish Republican Army Volunteers whose aim was to gain independence by force. The British government had previously made attempts towards Irish Home Rule preceding the Anglo-Irish war, but the violent British reaction to the Easter Rising (an armed insurrection in April 1916) led to growing support for Irish independence. The war ended with a truce that led to the creation of the Irish Free State which, however, remained under the influence of the British Crown. | Europe |
| Anglo-Irish Treaty | The Treaty | 20th | 6 December 1921 | | The Anglo-Irish Treaty (Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland) and known in Ireland as ‘The Treaty’, was signed by the British Empire and Irish Republic, concluding the Anglo-Irish War. It resulted in the withdrawal of British troops from the majority of Ireland and in the establishment of the Irish Free State. The Irish Free State was however kept under the influence of the British Crown and was given dominion status rather than that of an independent Republic. This led to internal tensions, as public opinion was split over the treaty, and became the direct cause of the Irish Civil War in 1922–23. | Europe |
| Italian Invasion of Albania | | 20th | 7 April 1939 | 12 April 1939 | The Italian Invasion of Albania was a conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Albanian Kingdom. The invasion was the result of the imperialistic ambitions of the Italian Prime Minister and Dictator Benito Mussolini. Italy had already put pressure on Albania in the preceding years, but King Zog I of Albania refused to give in despite direct threats from Mussolini in 1934. Prompted by Hitler’s invasion of Czechoslovakia and the imminent birth of an Albanian royal child, the Italians quickly annexed Albania, and King Zog I went into exile in neighbouring Greece. | Europe |
| First Balkan War | | 20th | 8 October 1912 | 30 May 1913 | The First Balkan War was a result of the rise of nationalism in the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire’s weakening grip on this region. Despite internal conflicts, the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro united their armies and seized the unique chance to strike at the Ottoman Empire, whose armies were in decline and significantly outnumbered by the Balkan League. The outcome of this war proved to be disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, as they lost almost all their remaining European territories. | Europe |
| Treaty of London (1913) | | 20th | 30 May 1913 | | The Treaty of London was signed by representatives from the Great Powers (the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary),and from the Balkan League (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro). Though representatives from the Ottoman Empire were absent at the signing, this treaty effectively ended the First Balkan War. It divided the formerly Ottoman-ruled territories in the Balkans among the members of the Balkan League. However, the delineation of the exact boundaries was unpopular with some parties involved and later led to the Second Balkan War. | Europe |
| Albanian Revolt of 1912 | Albanian War of Independence | 20th | January 1912 | 4 September 1912 | The Albanian Revolt of 1912, also known as the Albanian War of Independence, was a conflict involving the Albanians and the Ottoman Empire. It preceded the First Balkan War and was an important sign for neighbouring countries that the Ottoman Empire was weakening. The conflict was caused by new legislation introduced by the Young Turks, a political reform movement within the Ottoman Empire, requiring Albanians to serve in the Ottoman Empire and increasing their taxes, among other stipulations. The war ended when Albania’s demands were fulfilled on 4 September 1912. | Europe |
| Greek War of Independence | Greek Insurgence | 19th | 21 February 1821 | 12 September 1829 | The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Insurgence and the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and Greek revolutionaries supported by the British Empire, Kingdom of France and Russian Empire. It was the result of growing Greek nationalism, supported by Western European ‘philhellenes’, and a weakening Ottoman Empire who had ruled Greece since the 15th century. The involvement of other European powers, partly due to envy of the Ottomans, was key to Greece becoming a sovereign power. | Europe |
| 1830 Protocol of London | Third London Protocol | 19th | 3 February 1830 | | The 1830 Protocol of London, also known as the Third London Protocol and in Greece as the Protocol of Independence, was signed by the European ‘Great Powers’ - the Kingdom of France, the Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland – and was the first official international diplomatic act to recognise Greece as an independent state. The treaty marked the end of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. It also defined the borders of this new state and recognised a Sovereign Prince of Greece. | Europe |
| Greco-Turkish War | Unfortunate War | 19th | 18 April 1897 | 20 May 1897 | The Greco-Turkish War, also known in Greece as the Unfortunate War, started over a conflict around the Ottoman-held island of Crete, whose Greek-majority population wanted to unite with the Kingdom of Greece. This was the first open war fought by Greece since the Greek War of Independence of 1821. Greece’s lack of preparation combined with the Ottoman Empire’s military reorganisation resulted in a clear Ottoman victory. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople (1897) | | 19th | 4 December 1897 | | The Treaty of Constantinople was a treaty signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Greece, ending the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. It was brokered by the European ‘Great Powers’ who tried to limit Greece’s losses after the war in which the Ottomans had clearly gained the upper hand. Although it was decided that Greece should pay the Ottoman Empire a hefty sum for war reparations, it was able to regain almost all territories lost to the Ottomans during the war. The island of Crete also became an autonomous state. | Europe |
| Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) | War of 93 | 19th | 24 April 1877 | 3 March 1878 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, also known as the War of 93, was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the coalition of the Russian Empire, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It took place in the Caucasus and Balkans and was a result of rising nationalism in the Balkan states, along with the Russian Empire wanting to re-establish itself in the Black Sea after territorial losses in the Crimean war. It was a clear victory for the Russian Empire, who had almost reached Constantinople when a truce was enforced by the British Empire. | Europe |
| 1878 Treaty of San Stefano | Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano | 19th | 3 March 1878 | | The 1878 Treaty of San Stefano, also known as the Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, was signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire and ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. This treaty would have established the Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous state, ended Ottoman control over the Balkan states, and secured significant territorial gains for Russia. However, some of these changes were reversed by the European ‘Great Powers’ in the Treaty of Berlin which followed a months later and which superseded this peace treaty. | Europe |
| Franco-Prussian War | War of 1870 | 19th | 19 July 1870 | 28 January 1871 | The Franco-Prussian War, also known in France as the War of 1870, was fought between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation. The German victory led to an important shift of power in continental Europe, along with the creation of a unified Germany. Although the direct cause for this conflict was the Spanish throne succession, the French Empire initiated this war to retain their dominant position after direct provocation by the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who saw this as a unique chance to establish new German alliances. | Europe |
| Treaty of Frankfurt (1871) | | 19th | 10 May 1871 | | The Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871 was signed by the French Third Republic and the German Empire and ended the Franco-Prussian War. According to the wish of Otto von Bismarck, Prince of Bismarck, this treaty formally united Germany under the rule of King Wilhelm I. It therefore had an important impact on Europe’s balance of power, which until then had been influenced mostly by the British and French Empires. The treaty defined the borders between France and Germany and specified a French war indemnity. It led to polarised German-French relations and influenced France's involvement in World War I. | Europe |
| Crimean War | | 19th | 16 October 1853 | 30 March 1856 | The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, Second French Empire, British Empire, and Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. It took place across Europe, including in Crimea, the Balkans and the North Caucasus. The direct cause of the conflict was Russia’s desire to protect Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. The French and British Empire were deeply concerned about Russian expansionism and joined the war to uphold the failing Ottoman Empire. The war resulted in Russia’s defeat. | Europe |
| Treaty of Paris of 1856 | | 19th | 30 March 1856 | | The Treaty of Paris of 1856 brought the Crimean War to an end, and was signed by the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the Second French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. This treaty diminished Russia’s influence in Crimea and saw the Ottoman Empire join the ‘Great Powers’, or European concert. It ensured territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, opened the Danube to shipping, and demilitarised the Black Sea. The latter was particularly painful for Russia, and this clause was consequently disregarded when Russia decided to re-establish its naval military presence in 1870. | Europe |
| Peace of Callias | | 5th BC | 449 BCE | | The Peace of Callias was signed by the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire and the Delian league, led by the city state of Athens, and which concluded the Greco-Persian Wars. Though the existence of this treaty is sometimes debated, it does appear in several Greek literary works, including those of Isocrates and Demosthenes. It seems likely that some sort of agreement was reached between the Persians and the Greeks around this time, since the fighting ceased and the Delian league members initiated fighting amongst themselves, as they had arguably lost their main reason for unification. | Europe |
| Eighty Years' War | Dutch Revolt | 16th, 17th | 1 August 1566 | 30 January 1648 | The Eighty Years’ War, also known in the Netherlands as the Dutch Revolt, was a conflict between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic, which was fought in the Low Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, and part of western Germany and northern France). It began for several reasons including increased centralisation policies, taxation, and religious disputes, and led to the emergence of an independent Dutch Republic and colonial empire which significantly shifted the balance of power in Europe and beyond. | Europe |
| Peace of Münster | | 17th | 30 January 1648 | | The Peace of Münster was signed by the Seven United Netherlands and the Spanish Empire, concluding both the Eighty Years' War and Thirty Years’ War. It was negotiated in parallel with the Treaty of Osnabrück (though it is not a part of this agreement),and together these peace treaties are referred to as the Peace of Westphalia. The agreement signed in Münster ensured religious tolerance across the Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent state. Spain was able to retain the Southern Netherlands (modern-day Belgium and Luxembourg). | Europe |
| Treaty of Münster | | 17th | 24 October 1648 | | The Treaty of Münster was signed between the Kingdom of France (with regent cardinal Jules Mazarin for the underage king Louis XIV of France) along with its allies, and with the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III and his allies. The treaty was part of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War. | Europe |
| Long Turkish War | Thirteen Years' War | 16th, 17th | 1 August 1591 | 11 November 1606 | The Long Turkish War, also known as the Thirteen Years' War and in Turkey as the Ottoman–Austrian War of 1593–1606, was a conflict primarily involving the Habsburg Empire and the Principalities of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia on one side and the Ottoman Empire on the other. It started with conflicts along the Habsburg–Ottoman border and quickly escalated to a land conflict in Hungary, Wallachia, and the Balkan Peninsula. It was a test of strength for both the Habsburg and Ottoman Empire, resulting in little gain for either side, and in the stabilisation of their borders. | Europe |
| Peace of Zsitvatorok | | 17th | 11 November 1606 | | The Peace of Zsitvatorok was signed by the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire and ended the Long Turkish War. This agreement has been interpreted in different ways, partially because of inconsistencies between Ottoman Turkish and Hungarian texts, though a payment from Emperor Rudolf II to Sultan Ahmed I was certainly agreed. The agreement also stipulated that the Ottomans could no longer lead looting campaigns into Hungary. The agreement proved to be a blow to Ottoman prestige and stabilised the Habsburg–Ottoman border. | Europe |
| Moldavian Magnate Wars | Moldavian Ventures | 16th, 17th | 1593 | 23 September 1617 | The Moldavian Magnate Wars, also known as the Moldavian Ventures, were conflicts involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Moldavia, the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth tried to strengthen their influence over the principality of Moldavia, clashing with the Ottoman Empire’s expansionist ambitions. Tensions further increased due to raids by the Cossacks and Tatars. Ultimately, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was forced to denounce all Polish claims to Moldavia. | Europe |
| Peace of Busza | Treaty of Jaruga | 17th | 23 September 1617 | | The Peace of Busza, also known as the Treaty of Jaruga, was signed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, and concluded the Moldavian Magnate Wars. As part of this treaty, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth promised not to interfere in affairs of the Ottoman vassal states of Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. It also ceded Khotyn and prevented Cossack raids into the Ottoman Empire. In return, the Ottomans would prevent Tatar raids. Both parties were unable to keep their promises and would continue to raid the borderlands, which led to a new war. | Europe |
| Polish–Ottoman War | | 17th | 1620 | 9 October 1621 | The Polish-Ottoman War was a conflict between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Peace of Busza was violated by both parties as raids by the Cossacks and Tatars continued to take place. When Gaspar Graziani, ruler of Moldavia, sought an alliance with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sultan Osman II decided to send a large force to the region. After two battles, a treaty was signed and forced the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to stop its interference in Moldavia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Khotyn | | 17th | 9 October 1621 | | The Treaty of Khotyn was signed after the Battle of Khotyn by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, ending the Polish–Ottoman War. This treaty, for the most part, consolidated the earlier Peace of Busza: the Commonwealth would cede Khotyn, cease interfering in the affairs of Ottoman vassal states and prevent Cossack raids in return for the Ottoman prevention of Tatar raids. The outcome of the war and this specific treaty did have significant consequences for the Ottoman Empire, as it indirectly led to the rebellion of janissaries and to the assassination of Sultan Osman II. | Europe |
| Great Turkish War | Wars of the Holy League | 17th | 14 July 1683 | 26 January 1699 | The Great Turkish War, also known in Turkish as the Wars of the Holy League, was fought between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition known as the ‘Holy League’ including the Habsburg Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Republic of Venice, and Tsardom of Russia. The Ottoman Empire, encouraged by previous successes, decided to invade the Habsburg Empire and almost captured Vienna. However, a Christian alliance broke the siege and the borders of the Ottoman Empire were pushed back considerably by the Holy League, initiated by Pope Innocent XI. | Europe |
| Treaty of Karlowitz | | 17th | 26 January 1699 | | The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed by the Ottoman Empire and Members of the Holy League, including the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Holy Roman Empire, Venetian Republic, and Tsardom of Russia, and was mediated by the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic. The treaty concluded the Great Turkish War and effectively ended Ottoman expansion and dominion in Central Europe. The Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg monarchy became the dominant power in this region as it reclaimed almost all of Hungary, ending the kingdom’s trisection. | Europe |
| Gallic Wars | | 1st BC | 58 BCE | 50 BCE | The Gallic Wars refer to the aggressive campaigns against large parts of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland),led by Julius Caesar for the Roman Republic. Gallic, Germanic and British tribes had attacked Rome several times to reclaim territory, and as a result, the wars were waged by the Roman republic to strengthen and secure their northern borders of the river Rhine. The Roman Republic achieved a decisive victory, providing Julius Caesar the chance to bolster his reputation and political career as well as to pay off debts. | Europe |
| Cantabrian Wars | Cantabrian and Asturian War | 1st BC | 29 BCE | 19 BCE | The Cantabrian Wars, or the Cantabrian and Asturian War, were fought between the Roman Empire and the Cantabri and the Astures, the last two independent Celtic nations in north-western Hispania (present-day Spain). The Cantabri and Astures fiercely resisted Roman expansion and expansion. To avoid further humiliation, Emperor Augustus waged a bloody war against the Celtic nations, resulting in a somewhat Pyrrhic victory that inflicted devastating toll on the Roman Empire’s armies. | Europe |
| Marcomannic Wars | German and Sarmatian War | 2nd | 166 | 180 | The Marcomannic Wars, or the German and Sarmatian War, were a series of conflicts between the Roman Empire and several Germanic and Sarmatian tribes, most notably the Marcomanni, Quadi, and the Lazyges. It took place across the northeastern border of the Roman Empire, where Germanic and Sarmatian tribes grew increasingly confident that they could take control of Roman settlements along this northern frontier of the Roman Empire. It became the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius’ goal to stabilise the situation. After several conflicts, the wars ended in a stalemate with both sides claiming victory. | Europe |
| Bellum Batonianum | War of the Batos | 1st | 6 | 9 | The Bellum Batonianum, also known as the War of the Batos and as the Great Illyrian Revolt, was fought between the Roman Empire and native peoples of Dalmatia and Pannonia, regions which covered modern-day Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo, Serbia, and western Hungary. The conflict started when Illyrian natives were commanded to fight in a Roman war against Germanic tribes and mutinied. Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian, and Pinnes led an alliance of natives against the Romans, but were defeated and split into different groups from the ones they had previously composed. | Europe |
| Sicilian Wars | Greco-Punic Wars | 6th BC, 5th BC, 4th BC, 3rd BC | 580 BCE | 265 BCE | The Sicilian Wars, or the Greco-Punic Wars, were fought by Greek city states on Sicily against the Carthaginian Empire for control over the island. As the Greek city states, many ruled by tyrants, waged war against one another, this conflict cannot simply be described as a conflict between the Greeks and Carthaginians, as the Carthaginians often backed different city states in their internal conflicts to increase their control over the island. Ultimately, the Carthaginians ruled over western Sicily whereas the Greek city states retained control over the eastern part. | Europe |
| Revolt of the Batavi | | 1st | 69 | 70 | The Revolt of the Batavi was fought between the Roman Empire and natives of Germania inferior (part of modern-day Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and western Germany). The conflict started when the Batavi rebelled against the Romans after many were forced to join the Roman army. The Batavi and allied Celtic tribes, all skilled warriors, managed to defeat two Roman legions and control two others. They were eventually defeated by a massive Roman army and forced to accept Roman rule under humiliating conditions. | Europe |
| Umayyad Conquest of Hispania | Muslim Conquest of Spain | 8th | 711 | 718 | The Umayyad Conquest of Hispania, also known as the Muslim Conquest of Spain, was a war fought between the Umayyad Caliphate and Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania. Ibn Abd al-Hakam, governor of Tangier, invaded southern Spain at a time when the Visigothic Kingdom was starting to fracture. The Umayyad Caliphate was successful in its conquest, as most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under their rule. The conquered territory would become known as al-Andalus. | Europe |
| Slavic revolt of 983 | Great Slav Rising | 10th | 983 | 983 | The Slavic Revolt of 983, also known as the Great Slav Rising, took place in the northeastern part of the Holy Roman Empire (modern-day north-east Germany). The Slavic people living east of the Elbe River had been subjected to Holy Roman Empire rule since the early 10th century when the empire expanded eastwards. Attempts had been made to convert the Slavic population to Christianity, and when the Holy Roman Empire showed signs of internal instability, the Slavic people rebelled and reclaimed much of their former land, resulting in a halt to the eastward expansion of both the Holy Roman Empire and Christianity. | Europe |
| German–Polish War | | 11th | 1003 | 30 January 1018 | The German-Polish War was fought between the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Poland. Just before the conflict started, Emperor Otto III of the Holy Roman Empire died prematurely, leading to a succession crisis. This was an opportune moment for Polish Piast ruler Bolesław I the Brave to take control of border regions, including Lusatia and Upper Lusatia (covering today’s Poland and Germany). The war that ensued can be divided in three campaigns after which a peace treaty was signed. Overall, the Poles were more successful as their territory now expanded into Lusatia and Upper Lusatia. | Europe |
| Peace of Bautzen | | 11th | 30 January 1018 | | The Peace of Bautzen was signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Poland ending the German–Polish War. By the time this treaty was signed, King Bolesław I of Poland had conquered Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Lusatia, and Upper Lusatia. Despite several attempts, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II was unable to undo these Polish advances. The peace treaty signed at Bautzen formally recognised Lusatia and Upper Lusatia as parts of the Duchy of Poland. A marriage was also arranged for Bolesław, which strengthened his ties to the Holy Roman Empire. | Europe |
| Anglo-French War (1213-1214) | | 13th | 1213 | 28 September 1214 | The Anglo-French War was primarily fought between the Kingdom of France and the Angevin Empire and revolved around possession of Normandy. A decade earlier, Philipp II of France had conquered much of Normandy and the Anglo-French war was a direct result of this expansion. King John of England, worried about French expansionism, tried to regain these lost territories with aid from other European states, as they were part of an important continental region of the Angevin Empire. The war resulted in a French victory and the eventual collapse of the Angevin Empire. | Europe |
| Truce of Chinon | | 13th | 28 September 1214 | | The Truce of Chinon was signed by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England and ended the Anglo-French War. It broke up the Angevin Empire which had formerly included half of France, all of England, parts of Ireland and Wales, and the British Isles. Following the Battle of Bouvines, which resulted in the defeat of King John of England’s allies, the French King Philip II of France managed to broker this agreement that saw large parts of France come under his rule again. Also, it stipulated the payment of a substantial sum of money, 60,000 pounds, by King John of England. | Europe |
| Danish-Norwegian War | War of the Outlaws | 13th | 1289 | 1296 | The Danish-Norwegian War, also known as the War of the Outlaws and the Revenge War, was a conflict between two royal families and fought between the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. The war was triggered by the assassination of King Erik V of Denmark by several Danish nobles. War erupted after those responsible were harboured by King Eric Magnusson of Norway, though the decision to wage war was heavily influenced by Norway’s wish to expand southwards. The outlawed Danish nobles, supported by Norway, played a significant role in the war and managed to occupy northern Halland (modern-day Sweden). | Europe |
| War of the Keys | | 13th | 1228 | 23 July 1230 | The War of the Keys was a conflict between the Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, ruled by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Frederick II was excommunicated by pope Gregory IX after failing to go on a promised crusade several times. When he finally did join the sixth crusade, Gregory IX invaded parts of central Italy and Sicily which were under imperial control. The conflict was therefore also fuelled by conflicting papal and imperial territorial claims. Though the Papal States were successful at first, Frederick II managed to reclaim his former territories upon his return. | Europe |
| Treaty of San Germano | | 13th | 23 July 1230 | | The Treaty of San Germano was signed by Pope Gregory IX and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, ending the War of the Keys. After the excommunication of Emperor Frederick II and the Papal State’s attempt to confiscate the Kingdom of Sicily, this peace treaty could only be established by the mediation of many different parties. The treaty is generally seen as a victory for Emperor Frederick II, as it restored imperial territories in Italy and Sicily, recognised him as the rightful ruler, and lifted his excommunication. In return, he surrendered his special rights over the church in Sicily. | Europe |
| Great Heathen Army | Viking Great Army | 9th | 865 | 878 | The Great Heathen Army, also known as the Viking Great Army, was a coalition of Scandinavian raiders who invaded and aimed to conquer the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia. Though Viking raids had already occurred in England before this time, the Great Heathen Army was the first unified attack, possibly inspired by the realisation that unification of the separate Viking communities would lead to a more successful campaign. All Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were conquered with the exception of Wessex, which was successfully defended by King Alfred the Great. | Europe |
| Treaty of Wedmore | | 9th | 878 | | The Treaty of Wedmore was agreed by King Alfred the Great of Wessex and Viking leader Guthrum the Old. It was brokered after the Battle of Edington, in which Alfred managed to defeat the ‘Viking Great Army’ or ‘Great Heathen Army’, and push them back to their stronghold. The Welsh monk Asher mentions this treaty in his famous work ‘The Life of Alfred’, and how it followed a siege led by Alfred. According to this account, the Vikings promised to leave Wessex at peace, King Guthrum the Old was baptised and given the baptismal name of Æthelstan, with Alfred taking up the role of his godfather. | Europe |
| Scottish–Norwegian War | Norwegian Invasion of Scotland in 1263 | 13th | 1262 | 2 July 1266 | The Scottish–Norwegian War, also called the Norwegian Invasion of Scotland in 1263, was fought in Scotland between the Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of Norway. The conflict mainly arose from a dispute over the Hebrides which was under Norwegian control. King Alexander II of Scotland had tried to purchase the Hebrides from King Haakon IV of Norway, but his son Alexander III threatened to take it by force. This led to a large fleet being sent from Norway and to several mostly indecisive skirmishes. Eventually, Scotland managed to obtain sovereignty over the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. | Europe |
| Treaty of Perth | | 13th | 2 July 1266 | | The Treaty of Perth was signed by the Kingdom of Norway and the Kingdom of Scotland and ended the Scottish–Norwegian War. This war was mainly fought over control of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. After several inconclusive skirmishes, King Magnus VI of Norway sued for peace with this treaty, which saw the Hebrides and the Isle of Man come under Scottish rule. In return, Norway would receive a lump sum of 4,000 marks and an annuity of 100 marks. The treaty also recognised the Norwegian sovereignty over the Shetland Islands and the Orkney Islands. | Europe |
| Franco-Flemish War | Flemish Revolt | 13th, 14th | 1297 | 23 June 1305 | The Franco-Flemish Wars, also known as the Flemish Revolt, was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and the County of Flanders. Officially, the County of Flanders was a part of the Kingdom of France, but it enjoyed de facto independence until King Philip IV of France decided to tighten his control over this very wealthy county which included some of the richest cities at the time, including Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Lille and Douai. Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders severed ties with the Kingdom of France after several personal conflicts with Philip IV, which led to war. Both sides claimed sometimes unexpected victories, resulting in the Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge in 1305. | Europe |
| Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge | | 14th | 23 June 1305 | | The Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge was signed by the Kingdom of France and County of Flanders, ending the Franco-Flemish War. It followed the Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, in which King Philip IV led the French to victory. Despite this, the County of Flanders remained independent under Count Robert III as fiefdom of France. The treaty stipulated that a hefty war penalty should be paid by the Flemish, which was further enforced by Pope Clement V with the threat of excommunication. These fees, hitting Flemish farmers and middle class the hardest, eventually led to a popular uprising. | Europe |
| Hundred Years' War | | 14th, 15th | 24 May 1337 | 19 October 1453 | The Hundred Years' War was an intermittent armed conflict fought between the Kingdom of France and Kingdom of England. There are many underlying factors which triggered the war, including disputes over continental territories and succession to the French throne. At the beginning of this conflict, King Edward III helped the English achieve significant victories over France. However, Charles V of France managed to regain almost all lost territory by 1380 and turned the war in France’s favour. In the end, the Kingdom of England lost its continental territories except for the port city of Calais. | Europe |
| Treaty of Picquigny | | 15th | 29 August 1475 | | The Treaty of Picquigny was signed by the Kingdom of France and Kingdom of England, ending the Hundred Years' War. Initially, the English had the upper hand and conquered large parts of France. Later, a rise in French counterattacks caused the English to lose almost all their continental territories. This treaty was brokered after King Edward IV of England launched an invasion of France in 1475 that met formidable French resistance. It led to the withdrawal of English troops in return for a considerable payment. | Europe |
| Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars | | 14th | 1345 | 1396 | The Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars were fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Second Bulgarian Empire. It took place at a time when the two main powers in southeastern Europe, the Byzantine Empire and Second Bulgarian Empire, were weakening. This enabled the Ottoman Empire to gain a foothold in Europe in 1354, and to launch a campaign in the direction of Sofia the following year. Though the Ottomans suffered some setbacks in their conquest of the Balkans, they did emerge victorious and annexed large parts of the Second Bulgarian Empire, which consequently fell apart. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Hungarian Wars | | 14th, 15th | 1366 | 29 August 1526 | The Ottoman–Hungarian Wars describe a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, at a time when the Ottoman Empire was rapidly expanding into south-eastern Europe and keen to move into central Europe. At first, the Hungarians were able to keep the Ottomans at bay by aligning themselves with Moldavia and the principality of Wallachia. However, the tides turned mostly during the reign of Suleiman I and the Hungarians suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of Mohács, leading to the downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary. | Europe |
| Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War | | 15th | 6 August 1409 | 1 February 1411 | The Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War was fought between the Teutonic State and the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Teutonic Knights were a crusading military order who had raided parts of the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania since the 13th century. When Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania married Queen Jadwiga of Poland, this led to an alliance between the two countries and Lithuania’s conversion to Christianity. The Polish–Lithuanian union moved against the Teutonic Order, diminishing their influence in the region. | Europe |
| First Peace of Thorn | | 15th | 1 February 1411 | | The First Peace of Thorn was signed by the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Teutonic State, concluding the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. The Polish–Lithuanian union had managed to win a decisive victory over the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald. However, the First Peace of Thorn hardly led to any territorial losses for the Teutonic Knights, which can be considered a diplomatic victory on their side. High ransoms set by the Polish–Lithuanian union did however greatly affect the Teutonic State, causing economic decline and internal unrest that ultimately led to further conflict. | Europe |
| Hussite Wars | Hussite Revolution | 15th | 30 July 1419 | 30 May 1434 | The Hussite Wars, also known as the Hussite Revolution or the Bohemian Wars, was a religious conflict between the Catholic Church, championed by (among others) the Holy Roman Empire, and the followers of Jan Hus, primarily among the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Jan Hus was a pre-Protestant Christian reformer whose execution in Konstanz for heresy was the direct cause of this conflict. The Hussites grew in number and took over Prague and other parts of Bohemia. This led to a crusade led by the Holy Roman Empire and the defeat of radical Hussites, but not the moderate Hussites. | Europe |
| Religious Peace of Kutná Hora | | 15th | March 1485 | | The Religious Peace of Kutná Hora was brokered between the Utraquist Hussites and Roman Catholics living in a part of the Holy Roman Empire that covers today’s Czech Republic. It ended the Hussite Wars primarily fought over religious differences and intolerance. As part of this treaty, both the Ultraquist Hussites and the Roman Catholics agreed to accept the Council of Basel’s conclusions. Increased religious freedom and tolerance were key factors in land development, but contributed to future conflicts of interests between nobility and middle class. | Europe |
| First Ottoman–Venetian War | | 15th | 1463 | 25 January 1479 | The First Ottoman–Venetian War was fought between the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. The Venetians had become a major European power in the 15th century, largely due to the monopolisation of Eastern trade. The advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 threatened Venice’s dominance in the eastern Mediterranean, leading to this first conflict between the Venetians and the Ottomans. The war was a clear success for the Ottomans, who conquered strategic Venetian holdings in Albania and Greece. | Europe |
| Treaty of Constantinople (1479) | | 15th | 25 January 1479 | | The Treaty of Constantinople was signed by the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire, concluding the First Ottoman–Venetian War. This war was triggered by the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, threatening Venetian dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. After several skirmishes, the Ottomans managed to gain the upper hand and in this resulting peace treaty, the Venetians ceded many territories to the Ottomans. They were also forced to pay the Ottomans for war repairs as well as the ability to trade in the Black Sea, severely weakening their position in the Levant. | Europe |
| Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War | | 15th, 16th | 1493 | 1593 | The Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War refers to a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Croatia that were a result of Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Ottoman Empire was steadily gaining ground and had more troops available in the Balkans after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Kingdom of Croatia was keen on defending Christian Europe and clashed with the Ottomans in 1493 at the Battle of Krbava Field. Although the Croatians lost a large part of their territory, they succeeded in halting the Ottomans’ territorial expansion. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497 | Stures' Russian War | 15th | 1495 | March 1497 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497, also known as the Stures' Russian War, was a between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, allied with King Hans of Denmark. King Hans wanted to take the Swedish throne from the Sture family. Ivan III of Moscow sent an army to lay siege of the Swedish castle of Vyborg when, after several months, Russia’s assaults were halted by a huge explosion. Though this short war didn’t lead to any territorial changes, it is significant in that it the first war between Sweden and Russia. | Europe |
| First Novgorod Truce | | 15th | March 1497 | | The First Novgorod Truce was agreed between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kingdom of Sweden, bringing the Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497 to an end. The war and this subsequent truce did not lead to any significant territorial changes, though the truce did lead to reconfirming borders as they were agreed upon in 1323, and also established the principle of free trade between the Russians and Swedes. In 1510, the agreement was extended for another 60 years. | Europe |
| Swabian War | War of the Engadin | 15th | January 1499 | 22 September 1499 | The Swabian War, also known as the Swiss War and the War of the Engadin, was fought between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the Swabian League, part of the Holy Roman Empire. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III of Habsburg established the Swabian League in 1488 as an institution that helped to maintain imperial peace. The Swiss didn’t recognise this league, and their refusal to join led to a short yet brutal war. The Swiss won six successive victories, prompting a peace treaty that recognised the Old Swiss Confederacy as a separate political entity, though officially it remained part of the Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Basel | | 15th | 22 September 1499 | | The Treaty of Basel was signed by the Old Swiss Confederacy and the Swabian League (part of the Holy Roman Empire) and concluded the Swabian War. This short, brutal war ended after the Battle of Dornach, which saw a decisive victory for the Swiss. Consequently, the peace treaty that followed significantly strengthened the position of the Old Swiss Confederacy within the Holy Roman Empire. It also earned the Swiss the reputation of being among the finest fighters in Europe. Just two years after this treaty, in 1501, Basel and Schaffhausen joined the Swiss confederation. | Europe |
| Ottoman–Habsburg Wars | | 16th, 17th, 18th | 29 August 1526 | 4 August 1791 | The Ottoman–Habsburg Wars were fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire across Central and Eastern Europe. As the main European power, the Habsburg Empire saw the expansion of the Ottoman Empire as a threat to their dominion. The Battle of Mohacs was a decisive Ottoman victory, ending the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars, but starting war with Ferdinand I, King of Bohemia and later the Holy Roman Emperor. This war lasted for centuries, with successes and defeats on both sides which led to the decline of both empires and allowed a shift in the balance of power. | Europe |
| Treaty of Sistova | | 18th | 4 August 1791 | | The Treaty of Sistova was signed by the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire after it was brokered by the British Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Dutch Republic. It concluded the Ottoman–Habsburg Wars which had been fought - with varying levels of intensity - over a period of more than two centuries. This prolonged conflict had led to the decline of both the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires and the emergence of new powers. The French Revolution put pressure on the Habsburg Empire to conclude this treaty which allowed them to make marginal territorial gains. | Europe |
| Swedish War of Liberation | Gustav Vasa's Rebellion | 16th | January 1521 | 1 September 1524 | The Swedish War of Liberation, also known as Gustav Vasa's Rebellion and the Swedish War of Secession, was a civil war in which the Swedes were fighting the other members of the Kalmar Union, Norway and Denmark, for independence. King Christian II, who presided over the Kalmar Union, was unpopular in Sweden and tensions arose when Gustav Vasa was appointed commander by delegates of the northern part of Dalarna. A rebellion, led by Gustav Vasa, was successful and brought the Kalmar Union to an end. Gustav Vasa was subsequently crowned King of Sweden in 1523. | Europe |
| Treaty of Malmö | Malmö Recess | 16th | 1 September 1524 | | The Treaty of Malmö, also known as the Malmö Recess, was signed by Denmark–Norway and the Kingdom of Sweden, ending the Swedish War of Liberation. Before the war, King Christian II had presided over the Kalmar Union between the Kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. As a result of the war, the Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa replaced Christian II and was crowned King Gustav I in 1523, effectively ending the Kalmar Union and marking the beginning of Denmark–Norway. The Treaty of Malmö - signed over a year later - consolidated this change and established new borders between these lands. | Europe |
| Saxon Feud | | 16th | 1514 | 3 December 1517 | The Saxon Feud was a military conflict between the County of East Frisia, the 'West Frisian' rebels and the City of Groningen on the one side, and Imperial Frisia and the Habsburg Netherlands on the other. In 1498, Albert III was appointed hereditary governor of 'the Frisian lands' by King of the Romans, and later Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I. Frisia had to be conquered first, which led to several conflicts with the Frisians, who kept resisting foreign rule. This eventually led to the 3-year Saxon Feud, resulting in marginal territorial gains and losses for both sides. | Europe |
| Peace of Zetel | | 16th | 3 December 1517 | | The Peace of Zetel was a treaty between the East Frisian Count Edzard I, Duke Henry II of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Count John V of Oldenburg, and which ended the Saxon feud. Edzard I had led the East Frisians, 'West Frisian' rebels, and city of Groningen against the Holy Roman Empire for which he received an ‘imperial ban’. After several battles and the tide slowly turning in Edzard’s favour, Emperor Charles V lifted the imperial ban. The treaty recognised Edzard’s rule over parts of East Frisia, though West Frisia, Groningen and the Ommelanden were placed under imperial rule. | Europe |
| German Peasants' War | Great Peasants' Revolt | 16th | 1524 | 1525 | The German Peasants' War, or the Great Peasants' Revolt, was a widespread rebellion within the Holy Roman Empire across German-speaking parts of Central Europe covering modern-day Germany, eastern France, Austria, and Switzerland. It was mostly a religious conflict fuelled by notions put forward by reformists during the Reformation. It was the largest and most widespread uprising until the French Revolution of 1789. Although supported by some key players in the Reformation, including Thomas Müntzer, its rejection by Martin Luther contributed to its eventual failure. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1521–1526 | Four Years' War | 16th | 1521 | 14 January 1526 | The Italian War of 1521–1526, or the Four Years’ War, was fought between the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Spain, England and Papal States on the one side and the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of France on the other. The direct cause of war was contention over the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, but also the Papal States’ decision to side with him. It started when the French invaded imperial territories, leading to conflicts in Spain, Italy and France. Francis I of France suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. | Europe |
| Treaty of Madrid (1526) | | 16th | 14 January 1526 | | The Treaty of Madrid was signed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his prisoner King Francis I of France at the end of the Italian War of 1521–1526. Among other things, the treaty stated that France would cede large parts of its territory - in France, Italy, Flanders, Artois, and Tournai - to the Holy Roman Empire. Francis signed the treaty in January 1526, leading to his release. Upon crossing the border to France, however, Francis refused to ratify the treaty and joined the League of Cognac with the intent to dethrone Charles V. | Europe |
| Second Habsburg-Valois War | War of the League of Cognac | 16th | 1526 | 1530 | The Second Habsburg-Valois War, or the War of the League of Cognac, was a conflict between the Habsburg dominions of Charles V and the League of Cognac, which included (among others) the Kingdom of France, Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan, and the Republic of Florence. The battle of Pavia of 1525 shifted the balance of power in Europe in favour of Charles V, which prompted other European powers into creating the League of Cognac. The resulting war which unfolded in Italy was ultimately a success for Charles V, who subsequently became Italy’s dominant power. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cambrai | Peace of the Ladies | 16th | 3 August 1529 | | The Treaty of Cambrai, also known as the Peace of the Ladies, was signed by the Holy Roman Empire represented by Margaret of Austria, and the Kingdom of France represented by Louise of Savoy, aided by Marguerite of Navarre. The treaty partially ended the Second Habsburg-Valois War. It removed France from the League of Cognac, leading to its disintegration. Its terms mirrored those set out in the earlier Treaty of Madrid (1526) but did leave Burgundy under French rule. Charles consequently acquired hegemony in Italy, though the Italian Wars would continue after this treaty was concluded. | Europe |
| Salt War (1540) | | 16th | Early 1540 | 4 June 1540 | The Salt War of 1540 is a conflict between the city of Perugia and the Papal States. Although Perugia had officially been part of the Papal States since 1370, it enjoyed a semi-autonomous status. This changed during the late 15th century when various popes attempted to bring Perugia under their direct control. A new salt tax levied by Pope Paul III in 1538, combined with a disastrous harvest in Perugia a year later spurred the city to rebel against papal rule. This uprising was quickly suppressed and Perugia's subordination to papal control was ensured by the construction of an enormous fortress. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1542–1546 | | 16th | 12 July 1542 | 7 June 1546 | The Italian War of 1542–1546 was a conflict between the Kingdom of France and Ottoman Empire on the one hand, and the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Spain and Kingdom of England on the other. The war began when the truce of Nice failed and Francis I of France attacked Spanish territories. The main dispute was over the Duchy of Milan, with conflicting claims of Francis I and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The war was fought most fiercely in Italy, France, and the Low Countries (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands). The war was indecisive, and two treaties were required to bring this conflict to an end. | Europe |
| Treaty of Ardres | Admirals’ Peace | 16th | 7 June 1546 | | The Treaty of Ardres, or the Admiral’s Peace, was signed by the Kingdom of France and the Kingdom of England, ending the Italian War of 1542–1546. It followed the Treaty of Crépy, which had established a peace between the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of Spain and Kingdom of France. England and France, however, remained at war and the fighting was most intense in Boulogne. Due to the war’s enormous costs and inconclusive outcome, a treaty was finally negotiated by two teams of English and French Admirals. It allowed the English to retain Boulogne for another eight years. | Europe |
| Rough Wooing | Eight Years' War | 16th | 24 November 1542 | 10 June 1551 | The Rough Wooing, also known as the Eight Years' War, was fought between the Kingdom of England and an alliance of the Kingdoms of Scotland and France. King Henry VIII wanted to break the Auld alliance between Scotland and France, to force the union of England and Scotland by arranging the marriage of Henry’s young heir, Edward, to Mary, Queen of Scots. Henry declared war on Scotland to put pressure on the Scottish Parliament to confirm this match, but Scotland favoured its alliance with France and many battles ensued. Neither side was able to win a decisive victory. | Europe |
| Treaty of Norham | | 16th | 10 June 1551 | | The Treaty of Norham was signed by the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland, arbitrated by the Kingdom of France, and ended the Rough Wooing, also known as the Eight Years' War. Under the terms of this treaty, the English would withdraw from their holdings in Scotland, while Scotland would regain fishing rights on the river Tweed. Importantly, a definitive border was drawn between England and Scotland, dividing the so-called ‘Debatable Lands’ between England and Scotland. Known as the Scots’ Dike, the border remains to this day. | Europe |
| Italian War of 1551–1559 | Last Italian War | 16th | 1551 | 2-3 April 1559 | The Italian War of 1551–1559, also known as the Last Italian War, was fought primarily between the Kingdom of France under Henry II and the Holy Roman Empire under Charles V. The Holy Roman Empire had conquered territories formerly ruled by France during the previous Italian Wars. Henry II of France tried to reclaim these lands from Charles V and the ensuing war was fought in different parts of Italy and the northern borders of France. Although France didn't succeed in advancing into Italy nor change the imperial occupation of surrounding lands, it did make territorial gains. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis | Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis | 16th | 2-3 April 1559 | | The Treaty or Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis consisted of several treaties signed by the Kingdom of England, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Spain, and agreed upon (though not officially signed) by the Holy Roman Empire. The treaty ended the Italian War of 1551–1559, the last of the Italian Wars, and was prompted by France’s defeats in battle, internal religious conflicts, and financial difficulties on both sides. Under the treaty’s terms, France would abandon its policy of interfering in Italy, marking the beginning of Spain’s dominance in Europe. | Europe |
| Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras | War of the Alpujarras | 16th | 24 December 1568 | March 1571 | The Second Rebellion of the Alpujarras, also known as the War of the Alpujarras or the Morisco Revolt, was an uprising of Granada Muslims against Spanish rule. It was sparked by an edict decreed by King Philip II which forced Christianity on the children of the Moors. Hernando de Córdoba y Valór, who changed his name to Abén Humeya, led this revolt and was crowned king of the Alpujarras, a historic and natural region in Andalusia. After some initial successes, the rebellion was crushed partly due to internal dissension among the Moors. Philip II moved the Granada Muslims to Castile and encouraged Catholics to live in Granada. | Europe |
| Granada War | | 15th | February 1482 | 2 January 1492 | The Granada War was fought between the Emirate of Granada and an alliance of the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. The Emirate of Granada was the last independent Muslim state in Western Europe and the only Emirate to resist the Reconquista, which aimed to reconquer all Muslim territories in Spain. Whereas the Christians were unified, partly due to marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Granadans were impacted by internal dissension and civil war. After several small campaigns launched by the Christians, Muhammad XII of Granada was forced to surrender. | Europe |
| Treaty of Granada (1491) | Capitulation of Granada | 15th | 25 November 1491 | | The Treaty of Granada, or the Capitulation of Granada, was signed by the Emirate of Granada and the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. It ended the Granada War and completed the Christian reconquest of Spain. It followed the battle of Granada, which resulted in the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon’s decisive victory. The treaty stipulated a short truce after which the Muslim Emirate of Granada was to relinquish its sovereignty over Granada. Under its terms, religious tolerance for the Moors was included, but not for the native Jewish population who faced either conversion or expulsion. | Europe |
| Great Siege of Malta | | 16th | 18 May 1565 | 11 September 1565 | The Great Siege of Malta involved the Ottoman Empire and an alliance between Hospitaller Malta and the Spanish Empire. The Knights Hospitaller were based in Malta since 1530 and had to endure several attacks from the Ottomans, who were keen to seize Malta to ensure their dominion over the Mediterranean. The Great Siege of Malta gained such notoriety that Voltaire praised the bravery of the outnumbered knights who held off the Ottomans. The siege marked the moment when the Ottoman’s perceived invincibility and dominion over the Mediterranean were lifted. | Europe |
| Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt | Gubec's Rebellion | 16th | 28 January 1573 | 9 February 1573 | The Croatian–Slovene Peasant Revolt, also known as Gubec’s Rebellion or Gubec's Peasant Uprising, took place in the Kingdom of Croatia which was then part of the Habsburg Empire. Many peasants living in modern-day Croatia and Slovenia were living in difficult conditions, exacerbated by cruel treatment by the ruling classes, increased taxes and Ottoman-led raids and wars. The uprising, led among others by Matija Gubec, was widespread and remarkably well organised, with a political agenda that would replace the nobility with peasant officials. However, the revolt was defeated and retribution was brutal. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595 | | 16th | 18 January 1590 | 18 May 1595 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595 was fought between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden. As a result of the Livonian War, which ended in 1582, Russia had lost many fortresses and surrounding territories to the Swedish King John III. When the Truce of Plussa, signed after the Livonian War, expired in 1590, the Russians launched a quick military campaign that allowed them to regain control of the lands they had previously lost. Although the Swedes tried to overturn this by sending troops to the region, they were unable to push the Russians back and a peace treaty followed. | Europe |
| Treaty of Teusina | Eternal Peace with Sweden | 16th | 18 May 1595 | | The Treaty of Teusina, Tyavzin or Tyavzino, also known in Russia as the Eternal Peace with Sweden, was signed by the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden, ending the Russo-Swedish War of 1590–1595. The treaty revised some of the terms of the Treaty of Plussa, an earlier treaty signed in 1583. It declared the restoration of the borders between Sweden and Russia to those predating the Livonian War. As such, Russia would regain control over Korela, lam, Kopor’e, and Ivangorod. In return, the Swedes were given the territories of Estonia and Narva. | Europe |
| Nine Years' War | Tyrone's Rebellion | 16th, 17th | May 1593 | 30 March 1603 | The Nine Years' War, also known as Tyrone's Rebellion, refers to the Irish Alliance’s uprising against the Kingdom of England’s increasing presence in Ireland. One key factor that triggered the conflict was the spread of protestantism in Irish territory. The Irish Alliance, led by Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone and Hugh Roe O'Donnell of Tyrconnell, knew that the English were particularly vulnerable at this time and launched an island-wide campaign, supported by the Kingdom of Spain. Despite some early Irish victories, the English managed to repress the rebellion. | Europe |
| Treaty of Mellifont | Articles of Mellifont | 17th | 30 March 1603 | | The Treaty of Mellifont, also known as the Articles of Mellifont, was signed by representatives of the Kingdom of England and Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone, who led the Irish Alliance. It ended the Nine Years' War, also known as Tyrone's Rebellion, and followed the Burning of Dungannon which effectively made Hugh O'Neill of Tyrone a fugitive. However, he managed to hold out for a while longer and secure the treaty on relatively good terms. The surviving Ulster chiefs, including himself, were all pardoned, though they had to swear loyalty to the English crown, and renounce their Irish titles and private armies. | Europe |
| Cudgel War | Club War | 16th | 25 November 1596 | 24 February 1597 | The Cudgel War, also known as the Club War, was a peasant uprising in Finland which at the time was part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The Finnish peasantry had suffered through many conflicts and disputes which also led to them being taxed more heavily. Combined with religious disputes and poor social conditions, the peasantry of Finland rose up armed with cudgels, flails and maces. It was the last peasant revolt in Europe in which a local church was attacked. After several skirmishes, the rebellion was finally crushed by cavalry in Ilmajoki. | Europe |
| War against Sigismund | Swedish Civil War | 16th | 1597 | 1599 | The War against Sigismund, or the Swedish Civil War, was an uprising of protestant Swedish separatists against Sigismund Vasa III, who was King of both Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund had become increasingly unpopular in Sweden partly due to his Catholic faith and long absences from the country. The in facto ruler of Sweden was Duke Charles, later King Charles IX of Sweden, who led a rebellion against Sigismund. Under his leadership, the Swedes won a decisive victory at the Battle of Stångebro and Sigismund was deposed on 24 July 1599. | Europe |
| Polish–Swedish War | | 17th | 1600 | 16/26 September 1629 | The Polish-Swedish War was fought between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The direct cause of this conflict was the Swedish Civil War, also known as the War against Sigismund, which broke the union between Sweden and the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The conflict can be divided in four separate stages, all fought over disputes with regard to territory and the Swedish throne. After much fighting, the Kingdom of Sweden claimed victory, having made some minor territorial gains in the Baltics. | Europe |
| Truce of Altmark | Treaty of Stary Targ | 17th | 16/26 September 1629 | | The Truce of Altmark, or Treaty of Stary Targ, was signed by the Kingdom of Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ending the fourth and final stage of the Polish–Swedish War. The terms of this treaty favoured the Swedes who gained a large part of Livonia, including the important port city of Riga. The Swedes would also receive tax payments from the Commonwealth, allowing them to keep trading on the Baltic Sea. This treaty is sometimes regarded as a diplomatic failure of the Commonwealth, since it had won a clear victory at Honigfeld just before the treaty was signed. | Europe |
| Bocskai Uprising | Bocskai's War of Independence | 17th | 28 September 1604 | 23 June 1606 | The Bocskai Uprising, or Bocskai's War of Independence, took place in Hungary, Transylvania and present-day Slovakia, which were then part of the Holy Roman Empire. The numerous wars with the Ottomans took a heavy toll on Hungary, Transylvania and Croatia, and many people died of famine and disease. When Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II started to persecute protestants in these regions and accused the local nobility of treason, the protestant nobleman Stephen Bocskai incited a relatively successful rebellion against imperial ruled and became Prince of Transylvania and Hungary. | Europe |
| Treaty of Vienna of 1606 | | 17th | 23 June 1606 | | The Treaty of Vienna of 1606 was signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Principality of Transylvania, ending the Bocskai Uprising caused by civil and religious unrest. As part of this treaty, Stephen Bocskai, the leader of the uprising, was formally recognised as Prince of Transylvania. The treaty also dictated that Transylvanians would be able to elect their future rulers and ensured religious freedom in Transylvania and Royal Hungary. Since Bocskai had sought the help of the Ottomans in his struggle, a treaty between the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire followed later. | Europe |
| Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618 | Dimitriads | 17th | 1605 | 11 December 1618 | The Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618, also known as the Dimitriads, primarily involved the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Tsardom of Russia was going through a political crisis known as the Time of Troubles, or Smuta, and the Polish played a part in this by supporting False Dmitris for the title of Tsar of Russia. In fact, Polish armies invaded the Tsardom, taking Moscow in 1610. Though the Polish were eventually pushed back and Russian independence was preserved, the war ended in a clear Polish victory as they gained Severia and Smolensk. | Europe |
| Truce of Deulino | | 17th | 11 December 1618 | | The Truce of Deulino was signed by the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ending the Polish-Muscovite War of 1605–1618. The terms of this treaty were very much in the Commonwealth’s favour, leading to its greatest geographical expansion. Despite the Commonwealth’s military and diplomatic success, the later Polish King Władysław IV still felt he had a rightful claim to the Russian throne, resulting in the resumption of hostilities after the truce expired in 1632. | Europe |
| Ingrian War | | 17th | 1610 | 27 February 1617 | The Ingrian War was fought between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire. The Russians and Swedes had entered an alliance shortly before this war to oppose the expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, at a time of great political instability within Russia. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was offered the position of Tsar, but after a popular revolt in Moscow, this title was claimed soon after by Mikhail Romanov. This led to a war won by Sweden, which seized large territories including Ingria and Kexholm, and thereby denied the Russians access to the Baltic sea. | Europe |
| Treaty of Stolbovo | | 17th | 27 February 1617 | | The Treaty of Stolbovo was signed by the Swedish Empire and the Tsardom of Russia, and was mediated by representatives from the Kingdom of England and Dutch Republic. It brought an end to the Ingrian War in which the Swedes had made use of the political instability within Russia to expand their territory. Under the terms of this treaty, Sweden would return Novgorod and other parts in Northern Russia, but managed to retain Karelia and Ingria, which are situated between today’s Estonia and Finland. This meant that the Russian were cut off from the Baltic Sea, though importantly not the White Sea. | Europe |
| Kalmar War | | 17th | 1611 | 21 January 1613 | The Kalmar War was fought between the Swedish Empire and a union consisting of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway, the Duchy of Schleswig, and the Duchy of Holstein. The conflict erupted due to competing interests over trade routes in northern Europe. Sweden was looking to avoid a strait between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, controlled by Denmark–Norway, and wanted to occupy Finnmark, the area to the north of Lapland. Though no decisive victory was won, Denmark-Norway saw most successes with its small professional army and powerful navy and succeeded in taking control of Finnmark. | Europe |
| Treaty of Knäred | | 17th | 21 January 1613 | | The Treaty of Knäred was signed by the Swedish Empire and Denmark-Norway, a union including the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway, the Duchy of Schleswig and the Duchy of Holstein. It ended the Kalmar War that had led to territorial changes and which, under the terms of this treaty, were now reverted. As Denmark-Norway had gained the upper hand in the war, the Swedes had to pay the staggering sum of $1 million Rixdollars for the return of Älvsborg, its only North Sea port. The Swedes also had to recognise Danish sovereignty over Finnmark. | Europe |
| Uskok War | War of Gradisca | 17th | December 1615 | 26 September 1617 | The Uskok War, or War of Gradisca, was fought between the Republic of Venice, Dutch Republic, and Kingdom of England on one side and the Habsburg Empire, Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Spain on the other. The war is named after the Uskoks, Croatian pirates whose mission it was to take revenge on the Ottomans. When Venetian merchants started trading Ottoman goods to retain their profits from maritime trade, they became a target for the Uskoks. The ensuing Uskok War led to the eviction of the Uskoks from Senj, which greatly reduced threat to Venetian trade. | Europe |
| Treaty of Madrid (1617) | | 17th | 26 September 1617 | | The Treaty of Madrid (1617) was signed by representatives from the Habsburg Empire and the Republic of Venice, concluding the Uskok War. Though peace negotiations had taken place continuously during the war, this treaty only came about thanks to mediation by the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Papal States. Under its terms, the Venetians agreed to withdraw from Imperial territory while the Habsburgs promised to disband the Uskoks and destroy their fortresses. Consequently, this treaty eliminated Uskok piracy in the Adriatic Sea which had impacted Venetian mercantile interests. | Europe |
| Thirty Years’ War | | 17th | 23 May 1618 | 24 October 1648 | The Thirty Years’ War was one of the largest, most devastating wars in European history involving (among others) the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire, Denmark-Norway, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of Bohemia, Dutch Republic, and Kingdom of France. There were many different causes for this pan-European conflict, but perhaps the most prominent was the Reformation sweeping across the continent. There were no clear victors, but this conflict had far-reaching consequences for the future of the European continent as it dramatically shifted the balance of power and consolidated Protestantism. | Europe |
| Treaty of Osnabrück | | 17th | 24 October 1648 | | The Treaty of Osnabrück was primarily signed by the Holy Roman Empire and the Swedish Empire, concluding both the Eighty Years' War and Thirty Years’ War. It was negotiated in parallel with the Peace of Münster, though it is not a part of this agreement. Together, these two treaties are referred to as the Peace of Westphalia. The preceding pan-European wars had ravaged the continent and completely shifted European power balance. The Peace of Westphalia, and therefore this treaty, is a seminal event in the development of international law and has shaped Europe’s order today. | Europe |
| Smolensk War | | 17th | 1632 | 14 June 1634 | The Smolensk War was fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. Russia had just emerged from a period of political turmoil, also known as the Time of Troubles, and had lost a substantial amount of territory, including Smolensk, in a previous war that was concluded with the Truce of Deulino. King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland died in 1632 and, sensing weakness, the Russians attacked Smolensk in an attempt to reclaim it. Although they reached Smolensk, they were defeated by a Polish army that managed to siege the besiegers. | Europe |
| Treaty of Polyanovka | | 17th | 14 June 1634 | | The Treaty of Polyanovka was signed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia, ending the Smolensk War. It was signed after the Russians held back the Commonwealth during the siege of Belaya. Under the terms of this treaty, King Władysław IV Vasa would relinquish his claims to the Russian throne in return for a large Russian war indemnity. The Russians also gained control over the border town of Serpeysk and its immediate surrounding, which was mainly a gesture of good will from Władysław for Russians to join an anti-Swedish alliance, which ultimately failed. | Europe |
| Wars of the Three Kingdoms | | 17th | 1639 | 1652 | The Wars of the Three Kingdoms involved the Kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland. King James VI of Scotland became ruler of England and Ireland and unified the three kingdoms as King James I. His son, Charles I, believed that he should rule without a parliament, which led to internal dissent and armed rebellion. The civil war spanned a period of 14 years and eventually led to the execution of Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, in which England, and later Scotland and Ireland were governed as a republic. | Europe |
| Portuguese Restoration War | Acclamation War | 17th | 1 December 1640 | 13 February 1668 | The Portuguese Restoration War, also known as the Acclamation War, was fought between the Kingdom of Portugal, supported by the Kingdoms of France and England, and the Spanish Empire. Before this conflict, Spain and Portugal were ruled by the same monarch as part of the Iberian Union. When King Phillip III of Portugal (Philip IV of Spain) favoured the Spanish territories over the Portuguese ones and raised taxes for Portuguese merchants, a civil war broke out in Portugal. After several episodes of warfare, the Portuguese claimed independence and established a new dynasty with King John IV. | Europe |
| Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 | | 17th | 13 February 1668 | | The Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 was signed by the Kingdom of Portugal and the Spanish Empire and mediated by the English ambassador Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich. It ended the Portuguese Restoration War, also known as the Acclamation War, in which the Portuguese strove for independence. Under the terms of this treaty, independence was granted to Portugal and the Braganza dynasty was officially recognised as the legitimate rulers of Portugal. In return, Portugal ceded Ceuta to Spain, strategically located at the Strait of Gibraltar on the north coast of Africa. | Europe |
| Khmelnytsky Uprising | Cossack-Polish War | 17th | 1648 | 1657 | The Khmelnytsky Uprising, also known as the Cossack-Polish War and the Khmelnytsky Massacre, was a Cossack rebellion that took place in today’s Ukraine which was then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was caused by a variety of reasons, including Catholic expansionism that clashed with the Orthodox traditions of the Cossack population. Bohdan Khmelnytsky managed to unite the Cossacks and Tatars and led a brutal revolt, wiping out the Polish nobility as well as the Jewish population in modern-day Ukraine. The Cossack Hetmanate was established under the protection of the Tsardom of Russia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Hadiach | | 17th | 16 September 1658 | | The Treaty of Hadiach was signed by representatives of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Cossack Hetmanate at the end of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. During this conflict, Bohdan Khmelnytsky had founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which was later placed under the protection of Russia. Under the terms of this treaty, the Commonwealth would have been expanded to not only include Poland and Lithuania but also Ukraine. However, this never came to be as the treaty was poorly received in the Cossack Hetmanate as many felt Russia was a more natural ally, and which led to more conflicts. | Europe |
| Hungarian-Romanian War | | 20th | November 1918 | August 1919 | The Hungarian-Romanian War was a conflict between Hungary and Romania of complex and plural motivations and causes. Some of these included the Allied Powers’ wanting Romania to disarm Hungary, especially if an occupation would provide defences against Bolshevik forces. There were also tensions between ethnic and political groups in Transylvania (present-day Romania),which had unified with Hungary in December 1918; part of Romania’s goal was to protect ethnic Romanians, but it was also eager for territorial gains. | Europe |
| German Revolution | November Revolution | 19th | 3 November 1918 | 11 August 1919 | The German Revolution, also known as the November Revolution, was a civil war within the former German Empire. It emerged out of the defeat of the German imperial military in the First World War; what began as a naval rebellion developed into a full-blown public revolution against the imperial monarchy. The war was marked by a split in political vision between the two leading socialist political parties, concluding with the creation of a democratic parliamentary republic. | Europe |
| Turkish War of Independence | | 20th | 19 May 1919 | 24 July 1923 | The Turkish War of Independence was a conflict between Allied forces and Turkey following the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of the First World War. The conflict is often described either as a response by Turkish nationalist forces to encroaching Greek territorial occupation in Turkey, or as a violent nationalist retaliation to Allied peacekeeping efforts in Anatolia. The war led to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. | Europe |
| Husino Rebellion | Husino Miners’ Revolt | 20th | 21 December 1920 | 28 December 1920 | The Husino Rebellion, also known as the Husino Miners’ Revolt, was a conflict comprising a miners’ strike and armed rebellion against industrial slavery by workers from the regions of Tuzla, Breza, and Zenica in what was the recently created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Around 7,000 miners took strike action when their demand for wage increases was refused. The local governments reacted with brutal force, suppressing the rebellion through heavily armed battalions. | Europe |
| Slutsk Uprising | Slutsk Defence Action | 20th | 27 November 1920 | 31 December 1920 | The Slutsk Uprising, also known as the Slutsk Defence Action, was a conflict between Belarussian nationalists in the city of Slutsk and the Soviet Red Army. It has been framed variously as an agitation amongst local Slutsk peasantry against the redistribution of land under Bolshevist agrarian policy, a nationalist move for Belarussian independence in the face of ongoing Slutsk occupation by Polish and Soviet troops during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1920, and an armed border skirmish. | Europe |
| Austrian Civil War | February Uprising | 20th | 12 February 1934 | 16 February 1934 | The Austrian Civil War, also known as the February Uprising, was a conflict between socialists and government forces in the First Austrian Republic. The war emerged out a declaration by the chancellor of the Christian Social Party government that parliament had ceased to function and could not be reconvened, allowing the party to govern by decree based on a 1917 emergency law. Socialist resistance was ultimately overpowered by the intervention of Austrian armed forces. | Europe |
| First Cod War | First Coastal War | 20th | 1 September 1958 | 11 March 1961 | The First Cod War, also known as the First Coastal War, was a conflict between Britain and Iceland overfishing rights in Icelandic waters. Britain had been fishing up to but not including Iceland’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ),but Iceland later extended the scope of their EEZ to include regions where British ships had been fishing. Iceland was concerned to preserve its fishery resources, while Britain sought to enforce the previous EEZ as it was economically advantageous to Britain. | Europe |
| Corsican Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 4 May 1976 | Ongoing | The Corsican Conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Corsican separatists, fronted by the National Liberation Front of Corsica, and the French State. Agitation for Corsican independence from France emerged as a result of multiple entangled factors, including the repatriation of French citizens from Algeria to Corsica, widespread poverty, regional politics, and the dissolution of the colonial administration that had employed many Corsicans. | Europe |
| Romanian Revolution | Christmas Revolution | 20th | 16 December 1989 | 25 December 1989 | The Romanian Revolution, also known as the Christmas Revolution, was a conflict between the communist government and Romanian revolutionaries. Revolutionaries reacted against the Romanian Communist Party leader Nicolae Ceaușescu, whose austerity policies had driven Romania into economic decline, and who suppressed opposition with violence through the state’s secret police force. Revolutionary forces were ultimately successful, and the Socialist Republic of Romania was dissolved, leading also to Ceaușescu’s execution. | Europe |
| Spanish Civil War | | 20th | 17 July 1936 | 1 April 1939 | The Spanish Civil War was a civil conflict between Spanish Republicans and Nationalists. However, it has also been understood as having plural causes and agendas, including struggles across registers of class, religion, governmental systems, and political ideologies. The Nationalists, ultimately led by General Franco, were victorious, and the Spanish State was established under Franco’s rule. The war is notable for the political division it induced, as well as for the many atrocities that took place. | Europe |
| Hungarian Revolution of 1956 | Hungarian Uprising | 20th | 23 October 1956 | 4 November 1956 | The Hungarian Revolution of 1956, also known as the Hungarian Uprising, was a revolution by Hungarian people against the geopolitical control of the Soviet Union in Hungary. Control of the Hungarian People’s Republic government by Soviet forces led to the imposition of Stalinist policies and the suppression of civil liberties. Hungarians rebelled against this, whilst the Soviet Union fought to limit an independent Hungarian government, out of fear that this would destabilise the Soviet bloc. | Europe |
| Basque Conflict | Spain-ETA Conflict | 20th | 31 July 1959 | Dates contested | The Basque Conflict, also known as the Spain-ETA Conflict, was a conflict between Spain and separatist groups rallying under the collective Basque National Liberation Movement label. The latter sought independence of the Basque Country from Spain and France and to reclaim a Basque identity that had been repressed during the Spanish Civil War. Different views on the ETA – a terrorist group or a nationalist force – continues to influence which name is used for the conflict. | Europe |
| Treaty of Varkiza | Varkiza Peace Agreement | 20th | 12 February 1945 | | The Treaty of Varkiza, also known as the Varkiza Peace Agreement, was signed in Varkiza near Athens on 12 February 1945. Signed by the Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Secretary of the Communist Party of Greece, the agreement set out the terms of peace following civil unrest during the Dekemvriana clashes. The treaty reinstated various civil liberties, including freedom of the press, and required the release of prisoners held by the Communist Party and the disbandment of its military arm. The Greek government agreed to form a national army in its place. | Europe |
| Transnistria War | Moldova and Transnistria Conflict | 20th | 2 November 1990 | 21 July 1992 | The Transnistria War, also known as the Moldova and Transnistria Conflict, is an ongoing, frozen conflict between Moldovan forces and separatist Transnistrians. The conflict broke out in November 1990, resulting in extensive forced migration. The ceasefire brokered in July 1992 continues to hold; however, Transnistria remained under heavy Russian influence. The conflict has subsequently come under renewed scrutiny with the Russie-Ukraine war. | Europe |
| Croatian War of Independence | Greater-Serbian Aggression Against Croatia | 20th | March 1991 | 12 November 1995 | The Croatian War of Independence, also known as the Greater-Serbian Aggression Against Croatia, was a conflict between Croat and Serb forces over Croatian sovereignty. The Croat-supported government of Croatia declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1991, but this was openly rejected by the ethnic Croatian Serb minority, which subsequently declared parts of Croatian territory to be an independent Serb state. The war saw extensive forced migration and ethnic cleansing. | Europe |
| Erdut Agreement | | 20th | 12 November 1995 | | The Erdut Agreement, also known as the Basic Agreement on the Region of Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium, provided the terms of peace to end the Croatian War of Independence. The agreement provided transitional arrangements, including an interim administration, the implementation of inter-community power sharing, the return and protection of refugees, and the instalment of peacekeeping forces. | Europe |
| Kosovo War | Kosovo Conflict | 20th | 28 February 1998 | 11 June 1999 | The Kosovo War, also known as the Kosovo Conflict, was an armed conflict between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo Albanian rebel group known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The KLA sought independence from the control of opposing ethnic Serbian forces and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Between 1.2 and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians were displaced during the war, which a court administered by the United Nations described as comprising a systematic campaign of terror that included murders, rapes, arsons, and severe maltreatments. | Europe |
| Kumanovo Agreement | Military Technical Agreement | 20th | 9 June 1999 | | The Kumanovo Agreement, also known as the Military Technical Agreement, effectively ended the Kosovo War and acted as a peace agreement by providing for the end of hostilities between the NATO-backed Kosovo Force and the governments of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Serbia. Its terms also authorised assistance to, and the use of military force by, the Kosovo Force in achieving the peace settlement mission. | Europe |
| First Messenian War | | 8th BC | Date disputed | Date disputed | The First Messenian War was a conflict between Messenia and Sparta. The war was sparked by an existing rivalry over resources and social politics, and an initial dispute over alleged cattle theft developed into war. The dates for the conflict are disputed. Greek writer Pausanias suggests it ran between 743-724 BCE; others suggest 735 BC-715 BCE. The outcome was a Spartan conquest of Messenia. Messenians who had not fled or emigrated were held in servitude for centuries. | Europe |
| Lelantine War | War Between Chalcidians and Eretrians | 7th BC, 8th BC | c. 710 BCE | c. 650 BCE | The Lelantine War, also known as the War Between Chalcidians and Eretrians, was a conflict between the cities of Chalcis and Eretria, arising out of competition for land resources in Euboea and trade rivalry. Other city-states joined the conflict as allies to either side (Sámos, Corinth, Thessaly, and possibly Erythrae allied with Chalcis; Miletus, Megara, and possibly Chios allied with Eretria). As such, much of Greece was engaged in the war. | Europe |
| First Sacred War | Cirraean War | 6th BC | c. 590 BCE | c. 585 BCE | The First Sacred War, also known as the Cirraean War, was a conflict between the city of Kirrha and the Amphictyonic League of Delphi. Speculated causes include the Delphic attempt to take control over the Sacred Land of Apollo (known as the Kirrhaean Plain),Kirrhaean robberies on pilgrims headed to Delphi, and Kirrhaean territorial expansion into Delphic land. The coalition of Delphic allies won the war, resulting in the destruction of Kirrha and the forced migration of its inhabitants. | Europe |
| Peloponnesian War | | 5th BC | 431 BCE | 404 BCE | The Peloponnesian War was a conflict between Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, with Athens using its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese to suppress signs of unrest within its empire. The conflict ultimately led to the devastation of the previously dominant Athens economy, as well as of its countryside land. Poverty was felt across much of Greece, and a Spartan oligarchy was established in Athens from 404 BCE. | Europe |
| Peace of Nicias | | 5th BC | March 421 BCE | | The Peace of Nicias provided the terms of peace between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta, following the first half of the Peloponnesian War. Its terms included the return of Amphipolis to Athens, the end of the Athenian occupation of Pylos, the release of prisoners on both sides, and the opening of temples throughout Greece to worshippers from all cities. Few of Sparta’s allies agreed to sign the treaty, and it fell apart days after signing. In consequence, neither Amphipolis nor Pylos were returned, and fighting resumed. | Europe |
| Roman-Seleucid War | Aetolian War | 2nd BC | 192 BCE | 188 BCE | The Roman-Seleucid War, also known as the Aetolian War, was a conflict between the Roman Empire and the Seleucid Empire. The war emerged out of increasing Roman involvement in Greek affairs and disputes over their respective spheres of influence, especially in parts of present-day Turkey. The war ended with the Treaty of Apamea. | Europe |
| Treaty of Apamea | Peace of Apamea | 2nd BC | 188 BCE | | The Treaty of Apamea, also known as the Peace of Apamea, provided the terms of peace between the Roman and Seleucid empires following the Roman-Seleucid War. Formerly Seleucid territories were redistributed as Roman property and the Seleucid king, Antiochus III, was to pay a war indemnity. The Seleucid military forces were also reduced in size, and restrictions were placed on where it could travel and how it could operate. | Europe |
| Baussenque Wars | | 12th | 1144 | 1162 | The Baussenque Wars were a series of conflicts between the House of Barcelona and the House of Beaux. The origins of the conflict lay in a power struggle for control over Provence, a crisis over succession in the first ruling dynasty of Provence, and the ambitions of the House of Beaux. The war is sometimes divided into three distinct phases, the last of which saw victory for the House of Barcelona. | Europe |
| Byzantine Civil War of 1341-1347 | Second Palaiologan Civil War | 14th | 1341 | 1347 | The Byzantine Civil War of 1341-1347, also known as the Second Palaiologan Civil War, was a conflict over the succession to the Byzantine Empire following the death of Andronikos III. The conflict is historically described as having split Byzantine society across class lines, but more recent research has suggested that this was not the case. While the war ended with a peace settlement, the war contributed to accelerating the decline of the Byzantine Empire. | Europe |
| Count’s Feud | Count’s War | 16th | 1534 | 1536 | The Count’s Feud, also known as the Count’s War, was a conflict between Danish powers for succession to the throne following the death of King Frederick in 1533. It was fought between the Catholic former King Christian II, who had ruled until his deposition in 1523, and King Frederick’s son, the Protestant Christian III. Christian III was victorious, partly by taking advantage of Swedish naval power, which enabled him to suppress revolts against his rule and its imposition of Protestantism. | Europe |
| Rising of the North | Revolt of the Northern Earls | 16th | November 1569 | Early 1570 | The Rising of the North, also known as the Revolt of the Northern Earls, was a failed attempt by Catholic nobles from Northern England to depose Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. The conflict, which took place in 1569, was in part due to concerns over Elizabeth I’s efforts to impose Protestantism and assert the power of the Tudor state regionally in a way that threatened the feudal structures that benefitted northern nobility. Later on, in 1587, Elizabeth brought Mary to trial for treason, which led to her execution. | Europe |
| Monmouth Rebellion | Pitchfork Rebellion | 17th | 11 June 1685 | 15 July 1685 | The Monmouth Rebellion, also known as the Pitchfork Rebellion, was a conflict over competing claims to the English throne following the death of King Charles II. Charles II was initially succeeded by his brother, James II, but rebellion broke out when Charles’ illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, sought to ascend the throne and depose James. The Duke rallied dissident Protestants, who opposed James’s Catholicism. However, the rebellion was suppressed, and the Duke beheaded. | Europe |
| Kościuszko Uprising | Second Polish War | 18th | 24 March 1794 | 16 November 1794 | The Kościuszko Uprising, also known as the Second Polish War, was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia by Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth rebels. Grievances included dissent amongst the Polish Army against the King’s decision-making during the 1792 Polish-Russian War, and the second partitioning of Poland between Prussia, Russia, and the Holy Roman Empire. Rebels sought to assert Polish independence and strengthen its borders. The conflict ended in the Polish rebel surrender. | Europe |
| Finnish War | War of Finland | 19th | 21 February 1808 | 17 September 1809 | The Finnish War, also known as the War of Finland, was a conflict between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian Empire that took place between 21 February 1808 and 17 September 1809. Russia had agreed with France that it would force Sweden to partake in France’s continental blockade against Britain but failed to obtain Sweden’s compliance. Russia subsequently invaded Finland, leading to its annexation of Finland, and skirmishes in Sweden. The war concluded with the Treaty of Fredrikshamn, in which Sweden ceded the whole of Finland to Russia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Fredrikshamn | Treaty of Hamina | 19th | 17 September 1809 | | The Treaty of Fredrikshamn, also known as the Treaty of Hamina, provided the terms of peace between Sweden and the Russian Empire, ending the 1808-1809 Finnish War. Under the terms of the Treaty, Sweden ceded territories (including Finland and the Åland Islands) to Russia. These territories became the wider Grand Duchy of Finland and part of the Russian Empire. Russia pledged that Finland would be allowed to retain the Finnish language, legal system (the Swedish-Finnish Civil Code) and religion. | Europe |
| Treaty of Phoenice | Peace of Phoenice | 3rd BC | 205 BC | | The Treaty of Phoenice, also known as the Peace of Phoenice, provided the terms of peace between the Roman Republic and the Kingdom of Macedonia, ending the First Macedonian War. Under the terms of the treaty, Rome and Macedonia each retained control over specific territories. However, the peace did not last, with the Second Macedonian War breaking out a few years later, in 200 BCE. | Europe |
| Treaty of Vienna of 1809 | Treaty of Schönbrunn | 19th | 14 October 1809 | | The Treaty of Vienna, also known as the Treaty of Schönbrunn, provided the terms of peace between France and Austria following the War of the Fifth Coalition during the Napoleonic Wars where Austria had been defeated in the July 1809 Battle of Wagram. Under the terms of the treaty, Austria was obliged to impose Napoleon’s Continental System, involving a blockade against Britain. Further, it was to cede various territories to the French Empire, Bavaria, Duchy of Warsaw, and the Russian Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Zadar | Treaty of Zara | 14th | 18 February 1358 | | The Treaty of Zadar, also known as the Treaty of Zara, was a peace treaty signed in Zadar, Dalmatia on 18 February 1358. It provided the terms of peace between the Venetian Republic and Louis I, King of Hungary and Croatia. Under the terms of the treaty, Venice ceded all Dalmatian territories, the Dubrovnik region and Zadar to Hungary, while Venice was permitted to keep its naval powers in the Adriatic Sea. | Europe |
| Khotyn Uprising | | 20th | January 1919 | February 1919 | The Khotyn Uprising was a Ukrainian-led rebellion by predominantly peasant locals of Khotyn County against the Romanian Kingdom which occupied the Bessarabia region, part of present-day Moldova. The rebellion was subject to fractural in-fighting between pro-Ukrainian People’s Republic and pro-Bolshevik factions, which weakened the rebels’ strength against Romanian reprisals. The rebellion was violently suppressed, and it is estimated that up to 15,000 rebels were executed. | Europe |
| Bosnian War | War in BiH | 20th | 6 April 1992 | 14 December 1995 | The Bosnian War, also known as the War in BiH, was a conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995, following the declaration of independence by Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Part of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the conflict was between a multi-ethnic population comprising Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims),Serbs, and Croats, organised around the forces of both recognised and self-proclaimed states. Rising ethnic nationalism between these communities contributed to armed struggles over territorial control, in which genocide, mass rape, and torture were committed. | Europe |
| Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina | Dayton Accords | 20th | 14 December 1995 | | The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, also known as the Dayton Accords, provided the terms of peace to end the 1992-1995 Bosnian War. It set out that Bosnia and Herzegovina would exist as a single state comprising two distinct parts: the Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Republika Srpska (the Bosnian Serb Republic). The accords have been criticised for entrenching the ethnic cleansing that took place during the Bosnian War and for creating an unstable government structure. | Europe |
| Vlora War | Vlorë War | 20th | 4 June 1920 | 2 August 1920 | The Vlora War, also known as the Vlorë War, was a conflict between Albanian rebels and Italy over the sovereignty of Albania (then an Italian protectorate). Rebels sought an independent Albania, which was resisted by Italy. Italian efforts to quell the rebellion were hampered by communist revolutionary agitation and mutinies within the Italian armed forces during the same period. An armistice was agreed, whereupon Italy retained only diplomatic protection over Albania. | Europe |
| Tirana Treaty of 1920 | First Treaty of Tirana | 20th | 4 June 1920 | 3 September 1920 | The Tirana Treaty of 1920, also known as the First Treaty of Tirana, provided the terms of peace between Albanian nationalists and Italy following the Vlora War. Italy agreed to respect and defend the territorial integrity of Albania and to cease its occupation of Vlora. One exception was the island of Saseno, which Albania ceded to Italy. | Europe |
| Antiochene War | Roman-Syrian War | 2nd BC | 192 BC | 188 BC | The Antiochene War, also known as the Roman-Syrian War, occurred between the Seleucid Empire and the Roman Republic in present-day Greece, where the Romans were increasingly involved politically, and Asia Minor, where the Seleucid Empire had established power. The Romans did not want the threat of the Seleucids as another major power. War was triggered when the Seleucid army landed in Greece following the Aetolian League’s capture of Greek cities. The Romans forced the Seleucids back to Asia Minor and the war ended with the Treaty of Apamea. | Europe |
| Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 | Catherine the Great's Second Turkish War | 18th | 19 August 1787 | 9 January 1792 | The Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792, also called Catherine the Great's Second Turkish War, was part of the ongoing conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The war was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottomans to reclaim territories lost to Russia during the previous Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. As a result of the conflict, Russia gained full control over Crimea as well as over the lower Dniester and Danube rivers. Catherine the Great also founded the city Odesa in 1794, in present-day Ukraine, which gave Russia more control in the Black Sea region. | Europe |
| Treaty of Jassy | | 18th | 9 January 1792 | | The Treaty of Jassy was a treaty signed between the Russian and Ottoman Empires. It marked the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 and solidified Russia's growing influence and dominance in the Black Sea region. The treaty officially recognised the Russian Empire's annexation of the Crimean Khanate, which covered the Crimea area. Additionally, the treaty transferred the territory of Yedisan, situated between the Dniester and Bug rivers, to Russia, thus advancing the Russian border with Europe to the Dniester River. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743 | Hats' Russian War | 18th | 8 August 1741 | 18 August 1743 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743, also known as the Hats' Russian War, was a conflict initiated by the Hats, a political party in Sweden that sought to reclaim territories lost to Russia during the Great Northern War. The war was also influenced by French diplomacy, which sought to divert Russia's attention away from supporting its longstanding ally, the Habsburg monarchy, in the War of the Austrian Succession. The war proved to be disastrous for Sweden, as it suffered further territorial losses to Russia, intensifying Sweden's already weakened position in the region. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790 | Gustav III's Russian War in Sweden | 18th | June 1788 | 14 August 1790 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790, also known as Gustav III's Russian War in Sweden, was a conflict between Sweden and Russia. It was initiated by King Gustav III of Sweden, who had a plan to attack Saint Petersburg and orchestrate a coup to depose Russian Empress Catherine the Great. However, it did not come to fruition as Sweden failed to secure backing from Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Prussia. As a consequence, Denmark-Norway declared war on Sweden, but eventually, peace was achieved through diplomatic intervention by Great Britain and Prussia. | Europe |
| Treaty of Värälä | | 18th | 14 August 1790 | | The Treaty of Värälä, sometimes phonetically spelt as the Treaty of Wereloe, was signed between Russia and Sweden and concluded the Russo-Swedish War of 1788-1790. The treaty reinstated the borders as they were before the war. However, Russia's right to interfere with Swedish interior affairs gained through the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, was expressly revoked. Sweden, in turn, had to renounce its alliance with the Ottoman Empire. Overall, the Treaty of Värälä offered Russia more international prestige. | Europe |
| Treaty of Åbo | Treaty of Turku | 18th | 18 August 1743 | | The Treaty of Åbo, also known as the Treaty of Turku after the current Finnish name for the same city, was a peace treaty between the Russian Empire and Sweden to end the Russo-Swedish War of 1741-1743. The terms of the treaty were advantageous for Russia, with Sweden ceding significant territories to Russia, including parts of Finland. The Kymijoki River became the new border between the two countries, moving the Russian frontier further into Europe. The treaty also secured Russia's access to the Baltic Sea and solidified its position as a dominant power in the region. | Europe |
| Treaty of Nystad | Peace of Uusikaupunki | 18th | 10 September 1721 | | The Treaty of Nystad, also known as the Peace of Uusikaupunki after the current Finnish name for the same city, was a treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire to end the Great Northern War of 1700-1721. The treaty transferred significant territories, with Russia being granted ownership over Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia) and over Ingria (parts of present-day Estonia and Russia),where Tsar Peter the Great began construction of the new capital St Petersburg. Sweden received parts of present-day Finland, but the treaty signified the end of its Baltic empire. | Europe |
| Great Northern War | Second Northern War | 18th | 1700 | 1721 | The Great Northern War, also called the Second Northern War, was a conflict that involved Russia, Denmark-Norway, Saxony-Poland, and Sweden, with the goal of challenging Sweden's dominance in the Baltic region. The alliance of Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland found support from the British Empire and various pre-German states, while Sweden was supported by the Ottoman Empire. The war was partly about control of the Baltic Sea, and its outcomes marked a significant power shift, with Russia establishing St Petersburg and emerging as a major new power in the Baltic area. | Europe |
| Treaty of Paris of 1801 | | 19th | 8 October 1801 | | The Treaty of Paris of 1801 brought an end to the hostilities between France and Russia during the War of the Second Coalition, a European war against revolutionary France. The treaty was followed by a secret convention of alliance. The public peace treaty emphasised perpetual peace and friendship, while the secret convention outlined the future relationship between the two nations. The peace treaty with Russia was part of a broader diplomatic effort to end the War of the Second Coalition which marked a significant step in bringing peace and stability to Europe after years of conflict. | Europe |
| Treaties of Tilsit | Franco-Russian Treaty of 1807 | 19th | 7 July 1807 | | The Treaties of Tilsit were a pair of treaties signed by Napoleon Bonaparte. The first, also called the Franco-Russian Treaty of 1807, was between the French and Russian Empires and the second was signed with Prussia. The treaties marked the end of the war between the Russian and French Empires, initiating an alliance between the two, weakening the power of the other European nations. Included were secret clauses in which France pledged to support Russia against the Ottoman Empire, and Russia agreed to join the Continental System imposed by Napoleon against the British Empire. | Europe |
| Treaty of Valiesar | | 17th | 20 December 1658 | | The Treaty of Valiesar was signed between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire. It marked the end of the Russo-Swedish theatre of the Second Northern War. Under the terms, Russia was granted temporary possession of the Livonian territories it had conquered (located in present-day Estonia and Latvia). However, the continued war between Russia and Poland put Russia in a weakened military position and it could not afford to engage in a new conflict with Sweden. Consequently, the Treaty of Cardis was signed, obliging Russia to relinquish its Livonian and Ingrian conquests to Sweden. | Europe |
| Treaty of Cardis | | 17th | 1661 | | The Treaty of Cardis was a peace treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Swedish Empire, which brought an end to the Russo-Swedish War (1656-1658). Under the terms of the treaty, Russia agreed to surrender all the territories it had captured during the war to Sweden. Additionally, all the vessels that were constructed at Kokenhausen (the present-day Latvian Koknese) for the Russian siege of Riga were destroyed. Overall, the Treaty of Cardis upheld the territorial agreements previously established in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617. | Europe |
| Treaty of Vilna | Truce of Niemieża | 17th | 3 November 1656 | | The Treaty of Vilna, also known as the Truce of Niemieża, was a peace agreement between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It aimed to introduce a temporary truce between the two powers during the Russo-Polish War (1654-1667). It included a commitment from Russia to cease hostilities with Poland-Lithuania and join forces to build an anti-Swedish alliance during the ongoing Second Northern War. In return, Poland-Lithuania agreed to promise that Tsar Alexis of Russia would succeed John II Casimir Vasa as the ruler of Poland upon his death. | Europe |
| Latvian War of Independence | Latvian War of Liberation | 20th | 5 December 1918 | 11 August 1920 | The Latvian War of Independence, also called the Latvian War of Liberation, was a series of military conflicts that began when Soviet Russia invaded the newly proclaimed Republic of Latvia. Throughout the war, the Latvian forces received support from various foreign powers, including Estonia, Poland, and the United Kingdom. The war was characterised by intense fighting, guerrilla warfare, and shifting alliances. Ultimately, the war resulted in the establishment of the independent Republic of Latvia and the recognition of its sovereignty by Soviet Russia in the Riga Peace Treaty. | Europe |
| Guerrilla War in the Baltics | | 20th | 1944 | 1956 | The Guerrilla War in the Baltics was a protracted rebellion by partisans from the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) against Soviet expansion, both during and after World War II. The war continued for over a decade, with varying degrees of intensity in different periods and regions. The casualties through combat are estimated at 30,000, but it is estimated that 500,000 died once deported to Stalin’s Gulag prison camps. The legacy of the partisans, who called themselves the Forest Brothers, and their fight for independence remains significant in the Baltic states. | Europe |
| Anglo-Russian War of 1807–1812 | | 19th | 2 September 1807 | 18 July 1812 | The Anglo-Russian War of 1807–1812 was a period of hostilities between Great Britain and Russia. It was prompted by Russia's signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, which ended its war with France but forced Russia to cease maritime trade with Britain, which hurt the British economy. The war consisted largely of trade sanctions and diplomatic barriers, rather than violence, and was overshadowed by the larger conflict between France and Britain during the Napoleonic wars. The war mainly highlighted the shifting alliances and complexities of the Napoleonic era. | Europe |
| Treaty of Örebro | | 19th | 18 July 1812 | | The Treaty of Örebro, also called the Treaty of Peace, Union, and Friendship between His Britannic Majesty and the Emperor of all the Russias, marked the end of the Anglo-Russian War that had been ongoing since 1807. The treaty was joined to a second treaty between Sweden and Great Britain, ending the Anglo-Swedish War of 1810-1812. While neither wars had seen much military action, the two treaties aimed to establish a commitment to peace, friendship, and cooperation between the nations involved, as well as the restoration of territories that had been occupied during the wars. | Europe |
| French Invasion of Russia | Patriotic War of 1812 | 19th | 24 June 1812 | 14 December 1812 | The French Invasion of Russia, or the Patriotic War of 1812, was a military campaign launched by Napoleon Bonaparte during the Napoleonic Wars to compel the Russian Empire to adhere to the continental blockade against the United Kingdom. This invasion of Russia is widely regarded as one of the most significant and also lethal military campaigns in history, costing almost 1 million lives in under 6 months. It stands out for its scale, strategic complexity, and the catastrophic outcome for the invading French forces. It is extensively studied due to its profound impact on European history. | Europe |
| Winter War | | 20th | 30 November 1939 | 13 March 1940 | The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland, launched by the Soviet Union with an invasion of Finland after the outbreak of WWII. The League of Nations condemned the Soviet Union's aggression and deemed it illegal, subsequently expelling the Soviet Union from their membership. Over three months the Soviet Union dominated with tanks and airplanes, but also suffered significant losses. The war ended with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty, which forced Finland to cede some territories to the Soviet Union but allowed it to maintain its independence. | Europe |
| Russo-Swedish War of 1554-1557 | | 16th | 1554 | 1554–1557 | The Russo-Swedish War of 1554-1557 was a conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Sweden. It is often seen as a precursor to the larger Livonian War that followed. The war originated from border clashes and territorial disputes between the two powers. The hostilities came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Novgorod, which established a truce between Russia and Sweden. The treaty helped temporarily stabilise the situation and provided a brief period of peace before the outbreak of the Livonian War in 1558. | Europe |
| Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667 | | 17th | 1654 | 1667 | The Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667, or the Thirteen Years' War, was a significant conflict between the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1655 and 1660, Sweden additionally invaded the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leaving the nation with a weak economy and unable to fund further fighting. The war resulted in extensive Russian territorial gains and political changes which marked the beginning of the rise of Russia as a great power in Eastern Europe and left the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth unable to prevent the future Partitions of Poland. | Europe |
| Polish-Russian War of 1792 | War of the Second Partition | 18th | 18 May 1792 | 27 July 1792 | The Polish-Russian War of 1792, also known as the War of the Second Partition and in Polish as the War in Defence of the Constitution, was waged between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Targowica Confederation, a group of Polish-Lithuanian nobility backed by the Russian Empire. It unfolded in Lithuania and present-day Ukraine. In both regions, the Polish forces eventually withdrew in the face of the superior Russian military strength. The war ended when the Polish King asked for a ceasefire. It resulted in a Russian victory, and the Second Partition of Poland. | Europe/Asia |
| November Uprising | Polish-Russian War | 19th | 29 November 1830 | 21 October 1831 | The November Uprising, also known as the Polish-Russian War of 1830-1831, was an armed rebellion that took place in the territories of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were under Russian control after the partition of Poland at the end of the 18th century. It was fuelled by a desire to regain Polish independence and remains an important chapter in the history of Poland's fight for sovereignty. Even though the Imperial Russian Army eventually defeated the Polish rebels, the fierce resistance became a symbol of Polish national struggle against foreign domination. | Europe/Asia |
| 1841 Rebellion in Guria | | 19th | May 1841 | September 1841 | The 1841 Rebellion in Guria was a conflict that occurred in the Georgian territories of the Russian Empire. It was sparked by the introduction of new taxes and duties imposed on the Georgian peasants by the imperial government, who had support from the local nobility. After initial success for the peasants, the Imperial Russian Army eventually defeated the rebels. However, the rebellion stands as an important episode in the history of Georgia's struggle for self-determination and its resistance against external control and economic oppression. | Europe/Asia |
| Red Army Invasion of Georgia | Georgian-Soviet War | 20th | 12 February 1921 | 17 March 1921 | The Red Army Invasion of Georgia, also known as the Soviet-Georgian War, was a military campaign launched by the Russian Red Army with the aim of overthrowing the government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. They established a Bolshevik regime led by the Communist Party of Georgia. The conflict was a result of both expansionist policies pursued by the Soviet Union and the revolutionary efforts of Georgian Bolsheviks who sought external intervention to seize power. The subsequent Sovietisation of Georgia resulted in decades of Soviet rule until Georgia’s independence in 1991. | Europe/Asia |
| August Uprising | | 20th | 28 August 1924 | 5 September 1924 | The August Uprising was an insurrection against Soviet rule in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic. The uprising was an attempt by various anti-Soviet forces to overthrow the Soviet regime and restore Georgia's independence. The uprising was violently repressed by the Soviet authorities and for years they continued to target those believed to be associated with the rebellion through purges and mass deportations. The uprising was a taboo theme during Soviet rule, but nevertheless remained a significant symbol of resistance against Soviet rule in Georgian history. | Europe/Asia |
| Russo-Kazan Wars | | 15th, 16th | 1437 | 1552 | The Russo-Kazan Wars were a series of conflicts between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Khanate of Kazan. These wars spanned over a century and were first led by Russian Tsars Ivan III and Vasily III, after which Kazan was ultimately conquered by Tsar Ivan IV, better known as Ivan the Terrible. The wars were marked by fierce military campaigns and sieges as the Russian forces sought to expand their territory and influence in the region. The capture of Kazan in 1552 marked a significant milestone in the consolidation of Russian power and the expansion of the Russian Empire. | Europe/Asia |
| Cold War | | 20th | 12 March 1947 | 26 December 1991 | The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension that lasted from the end of WWII until the early 1990s. It primarily involved the US and the Soviet Union, along with their allies. The Cold War saw the absence of direct military confrontation between the superpowers, as they instead engaged in indirect conflicts through proxy wars in different parts of the world. The war was driven by ideological and geopolitical differences, as both sides sought to exert their influence and promote their respective political systems globally. The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union. | Europe/Asia/North America |