| Peach Tree War | | 17th | 15 September 1655 | 15 September 1655 | The Peach Tree War was an attack on New Netherland settlements by the Susquehannock people and Native American tribes, driven by the Dutch reconquest of New Sweden along the lower reaches of the Delaware River. The Susquehannock were trading partners and allies of the Swedes. The Dutch sought to expand their settlements and trade. The Susquehannock waged war in response to their claim to the region. The war ended with the exchange of hostages held for ransom and the Dutch repurchasing settlement rights whilst forced to garrison in Fort Amsterdam. | North America |
| Esopus Wars | | 17th | 1659 | 1663 | The Esopus Wars were a series of conflicts between Dutch settlers and the Indigenous Esopus tribe in the Hudson Valley. The Dutch saw the Esopus tribe as a threat to their land and resources. The Esopus tribe saw the Dutch as invaders and fought back in self-defence, resulting in raids lasting several years. Tensions remained uneasy until 1664. The Dutch ceded New Netherland to the English, who redrew the boundaries of Indian territory, forbidding further settlement on Indian lands without payment and mutual agreement. The new treaty established safe passage for settlers and Indians. | North America |
| King Philip's War | Metacom's Rebellion | 17th | 1675 | 1678 | King Philip's War, also known as Metacom's Rebellion, was a conflict between the Wampanoag tribe and the English colonies in New England. The Wampanoags saw the growing English presence as a threat to their land and way of life and launched a series of attacks in response. The English colonies saw the Wampanoags as violent and dangerous and responded with military force. Both sides suffered heavy casualties and the war caused widespread destruction throughout the region. The war continued until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in 1678. | North America |
| Treaty of Casco | | 17th | 1678 | | The Treaty of Casco ended the conflict between the Wabanaki Confederacy and English Settlers. The Wabanaki Confederacy consisted of several Algonquin tribes, including the Penobscots, who felt threatened by the rapid expansion of colonists into their lands. English settlers paid rent to the Penobscots, returned confiscated farmland and agreed to respect the Penobscots' land rights. Confrontations continued as English settlers refused to abide. The second Treaty of Casco in 1703, initiated by a member of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was unsuccessful in restoring peace. | North America |
| Tuscarora War | | 18th | 1711 | 1715 | The Tuscarora War was a conflict in North Carolina between the Tuscarora people and English settlers. The Tuscarora, Indigenous to the area, saw themselves as defending their land and way of life from the encroachments of the settlers. They launched attacks, leading to a full-scale war between the Tuscarora and the English. The settlers saw the Tuscarora as violent and dangerous and sought to secure their own safety and territorial interests. The war ended with many of the defeated Tuscarora migrating to New York. | North America |
| Fox Wars | | 18th | 1712 | 1733 | The Fox Wars happened between the Native American Meskwaki (Fox) people and the French. The Fox saw the French as a threat to their land and resources and sought to defend their sovereignty. The French saw the Fox as a hindrance to their expansion plans and sought to remove them from their territory. The Fox wars were brutal and resulted in significant loss of life on both sides. Eventually, The Fox were forced to surrender, losing much of their land and resources to the French. The few Fox survivors returned to Wisconsin and sought refuge among the Sauk near Green Bay. | North America |
| Yamasee War | | 18th | 1715 | 1717 | The Yamasee War was a conflict between the British colonies of South Carolina and the Yamasee Native American tribes. The Yamasee felt the British were taking advantage of their resources and territory, so they formed a coalition with other tribes to attack the British settlements. The British were caught off guard and suffered many losses before reinforcements arrived. The British retaliated with a brutal campaign against the Native American tribes, resulting in widespread destruction and forced relocation of the Yamasee people. | North America |
| Treaty of Savannah | | 18th | 1733 | | The Treaty of Savannah was signed in 1733, ending the conflict between the Creek and Yamasee tribes and the British colonies of Georgia and South Carolina. The Creek and Yamasee saw the treaty as a betrayal, as they had expected to receive land in return for their help fighting the Spanish and their allies. The British saw the treaty as a necessary step to secure their borders and control trade in the region. The treaty resulted in the Creek and Yamasee losing their traditional lands and forced to move westward. | North America |
| Chickasaw Wars | | 18th | 1721 | 1763 | The Chickasaw Wars were a series of conflicts between the Indigenous Chickasaw allied with the British against the French and their ally tribes. The Chickasaw believed they were defending their ancestral lands and way of life. The French and British sought to establish a dominant presence. The Chickasaw successfully maintained their position, much to the eventual benefit of the British. The wars ended when the French ceded New France to the British in 1763 under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. | North America |
| Father Le Loutre's War | Mi'kmaq War | 18th | 1749 | 1755 | Father Le Loutre's War, also known as the Mi'kmaq War, was a conflict that took place between the British and French settlers in what is now Nova Scotia, Canada. The French, led by Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, sought to maintain their presence and influence in the region, while the British aimed to assert their sovereignty. The war saw acts of violence and propaganda from both sides, including the burning of villages, and the manipulation of Indigenous tribes. The conflict ended with the British victorious and the eventual expulsion of the French Acadians from the region. | North America |
| Anglo-Cherokee War | Cherokee Uprising | 18th | 1758 | 1761 | The Anglo-Cherokee War, also known as the Cherokee Uprising, was a conflict between the British colonies in North America and the Cherokee nation. The British wanted to assert control and secure the frontier against French expansion. The Cherokee allied with the British on and off for many years. The war resulted in the defeat of the Cherokee and the loss of much of their land, leading to forced relocation and heightened tensions between the Cherokee and European settlers. The war was a seminal moment in the relationship between Native American tribes and European colonisers. | North America |
| Lord Dunmore's War | | 18th | 1774 | 1774 | Lord Dunmore's War was a conflict in 1774 between the Shawnee and Mingo Native American tribes and Virginia colonial settlers led by Lord Dunmore, the governor of Virginia. The settlers were expanding into Native American territory, leading to tensions and violence. The Native American tribes banded together to defend their lands and fought against the settlers in several battles. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, in which the Native American tribes ceded some of their lands to the settlers. | North America |
| Treaty of Camp Charlotte | | 18th | 1774 | | The Treaty of Camp Charlotte was signed by the Shawnee and Mingo tribes and colonial leaders in what is now Virginia. The treaty aimed to promote peaceful relations between the Native American tribes and colonists and to prevent further conflict between the two groups. The agreement recognised the land ownership rights of the Shawnee and Mingo tribes and established a boundary line between the colonial settlements and Native American lands. Despite the treaty, the tensions between colonists and Native American tribes continued to escalate in the following years. | North America |
| Cherokee–American Wars | Chickamauga Wars | 18th | 1776 | 1794 | The Cherokee–American wars, also known as the Chickamauga Wars, were a series of violent confrontations between the Cherokee Nation and the newly formed United States. From the Cherokee perspective, the conflict was about protecting their ancestral lands and way of life from the expanding American settlements. On the American side, the wars were a necessary measure to secure their frontier and expand their territory. Both sides suffered significant casualties, with the Cherokee forced to cede much of their land in the Treaty of Holston in 1791. | North America |
| Treaty of Holston | | 18th | 1791 | | The Treaty of Holston marked a significant turning point in the relationship between the United States and the Cherokee Nation. For the United States, the treaty marked an important step towards securing the western frontier and establishing American sovereignty over the region. However, the treaty represented a major surrender of the Cherokee Nation’s ancestral lands and a significant loss. Despite their reservations, the Cherokee signed the treaty in the hopes of preserving peace and stability in the region. Ultimately, the Treaty of Holston set the stage for further conflict. | North America |
| Northwest Indian War | Little Turtle's War | 18th | 1785 | 1795 | The Northwest Indian War, or Little Turtle's War, is considered by some the first of the American Indian Wars. The conflict was between the United States and Native American tribes for control of Northwest Territory. The United States were eager to expand their territory. The Native American tribes, including the Miami, Shawnee, and Delaware, opposed the United States' encroachment on their lands and tried to defend their territory. A series of violent battles and raids ensued. After the end of hostilities, many United States settlers migrated to the Northwest Territory. | North America |
| Treaty of Greenville | | 18th | 1795 | | The Treaty of Greenville marked the end of a conflict between Native American tribes in the Ohio Country and the United States government. For the Native American tribes, the treaty was seen as a surrender of their land rights as they were forced to cede vast areas to the United States in exchange for government protection and the promise of annual payments. The treaty allowed for the expansion of American settlements and commerce in the region, but at the cost of Native American sovereignty and cultural heritage. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Jackson | Treaty with the Creeks | 19th | 1814 | | The Treaty of Fort Jackson, or Treaty with the Creeks, was between the United States of America and the Creek Indian Nation. The treaty marked the end of the Creek Indian War and established the boundaries between the Creek Nation and the newly formed United States. The treaty granted the Creek Nation the right to retain their lands and sovereignty and ensured that they would not interfere with the expansion of the United States. Under the treaty, the Creek Nation ceded nearly 22 million acres in present-day Alabama and Georgia to the United States. | North America |
| Peoria War | | 19th | Date and year unknown | Date and year unknown | The Peoria War was a conflict between Native American tribes and the United States. The Native American tribes were led by the famous warrior Tecumseh, who was fighting against US expansion. The conflict started with several skirmishes and attacks on both sides, and eventually escalated into a full-blown war. The Peoria War was a brutal conflict that lasted several months and resulted in numerous casualties on both sides. Despite their best efforts, Tecumseh and his followers were ultimately defeated, and the US gained control over the territory. | North America |
| Creek War | Red Stick War | 19th | 1813 | 1814 | The Creek War, also known as the Red Stick War, was a conflict between opposing Creek Native American factions, the United States and European powers. The Creek Nation was divided on whether to support the British or the Americans. The Red Sticks, allied with the British, sought to stop American expansion into their territory. The US quickly joined the war against the Red Sticks, turning the civil war into a military campaign designed to destroy Creek power. Creek militancy was a response to increasing United States cultural and territorial encroachment into their traditional lands. | North America |
| Adams–Onís Treaty | Florida Purchase Treaty | 19th | 1819 | | The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819, also known as the Florida Purchase Treaty, was an agreement between the United States and Spain that defined the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. Spain ceded Florida and renounced the Oregon Country in exchange for recognition of Spanish sovereignty over Texas. This treaty helped settle the conflict between the two nations over territory and paved the way for the expansion of the United States into the western frontier. | North America |
| Arikara War | | 19th | 1823 | 1823 | The Arikara War was a conflict between the Arikara Native American tribe, the United States and their allies, the Dakota Sioux people. It is noted as the first Plains Indian War. The Arikara saw traders as a threat to their land and resources. The American side saw the Arikara as a threat to their fur trading operations and the safety of their employees. The conflict resulted in several battles, and the Arikara were forced to sign a peace treaty. Despite the treaty, the tensions between the two sides continued for several years. | North America |
| Treaty With The Arikara Tribe | | 19th | 1825 | | The Treaty with The Arikara Tribe was an agreement between the United States government and the Arikara Native American tribe. The treaty aimed to secure peaceful relations between the two entities and establish a trade system. It also established a reservation for the Arikara tribe, thereby limiting their hunting grounds and regulating the trade of goods. This treaty was significant as it set a precedent for future treaties between the US government and other Native American tribes. | North America |
| Winnebago War | | 19th | 1827 | 1827 | The Winnebago War was a conflict between the Native American Winnebago tribe and American settlers in Wisconsin. The Winnebago, who had been forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the Midwest, felt that the settlers were encroaching on their territory and disrupting their way of life. In response, they staged an uprising, attacking settlements and causing fear among the settlers. Eventually, the US government sent military forces to put down the uprising and restore order, but tensions between the two groups remained high. | North America |
| First Treaty of Prairie du Chien | | 19th | 1825 | | The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien was signed in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, between the United States government and the tribes of the Upper Mississippi River. This treaty established the boundaries between the Native American tribes and the United States, securing land rights and defining the borders of their respective territories. The treaty also granted the Native American tribes the right to hunt and fish on their ancestral lands and ensure protection for their traders and other rights to engage in commerce. | North America |
| Second Creek War | | 19th | 1836 | 1836 | The Second Creek War was a conflict between Alabama and Georgia militias and a faction of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. The Creek Nation consisted of various Native American tribes forced to cede their lands in Georgia and Alabama to the United States. Lower Creek leaders had become outraged over the illegal influx of white settlers onto their lands. US officials described the violence as a "war" to argue that the Creeks were forfeiting their prior treaty rights established in the Treaty of Cusseta in 1832. | North America |
| Fort Parker Massacre | | 19th | 1836 | Date and year unknown | The Fort Parker massacre took place in present-day Texas. Several Native American tribes attacked the fort, killing several settlers and kidnapping five women and children. The settlers saw the attack as a ruthless act of violence and terror and the subsequent capture of their loved ones as a cruel injustice. The Indigenous tribes saw the attack as a necessary defence against the continued encroachment of white settlers on their land and resources. This conflict highlights the tensions between the settlers and Indigenous people in the early days of American expansion. | North America |
| Council House Fight | Council House Massacre | 19th | 1840 | 1840 | The Council House Fight, or Council House Massacre, was a violent conflict between the Comanche tribe and Texas settlers in San Antonio. The Comanche leaders, including Chief Buffalo Hump, had come to negotiate a peace treaty with the Texans, but tensions rose when the Texans attempted to arrest one of the Comanche leaders. In response, the Comanche warriors drew their weapons, resulting in a bloody fight that left several Texans and Comanche dead. The Council House Fight was a turning point in the relationship between Texas settlers and the Comanche and set the stage for further conflict. | North America |
| Battle of Plum Creek | | 19th | 1840 | 1840 | The Battle of Plum Creek was a confrontation between the Comanche tribe and the Texas Rangers allied with the Tonkawa and militia. Following the Council House Fight, the Comanche sought to defend their territory and resources, while the Rangers sought to control the Comanche raids on settlements in the region. Chief Buffalo Hump continued to raid white settlements until 1844 when he negotiated peace while European settlers took over the former Comanche land. | North America |
| Battle of Antelope Hills | Battle of Little Robe Creek | 19th | 12 May 1858 | 12 May 1858 | The Battle of Antelope Hills, also known as the Battle of Little Robe Creek, was a conflict between the Comanche and Tonkawa tribes and the Texas Rangers. The Comanche and Tonkawa tribes had been attacking settlers expanding into the Comanche homeland. The Rangers successfully fought off the tribes and captured several of their leaders. The Battle of Little Robe Creek marked a turning point in the fight against Native American raids in Texas and was a significant escalation of the Indian Wars. It also established the Rangers as a formidable force in the region. | North America |
| Osage War | | 19th | 1837 | Date and year unknown | The Osage War was a conflict between the Osage tribe and the United States government over control of land in present-day Missouri. The Osage had previously been removed from their ancestral lands in Kansas and were promised the land they were currently occupying in Missouri as their permanent home. However, white settlers continued to expand on their territory, leading to tension and conflict. The war ended with the Treaty of 1839, which resulted in the Osage ceding more land to the government. | North America |
| Treaty of 1839 | | 19th | 1839 | | The Treaty of 1839 was an agreement between the United States government and the Osage Native American tribe. The treaty granted the Osage a reservation of land which was to be their permanent home. The treaty also allowed the Osage to retain hunting and fishing rights on their former lands and provided for an annual payment from the US government. In exchange, the Osage agreed to give up their claims to other lands and to allow the government to build roads and establish military posts within their reservation. | North America |
| Cayuse War | | 19th | 1847 | 1855 | The Cayuse War was a conflict in the Pacific Northwest. The war was between the Cayuse Indians and the United States government. In addition to cultural misunderstandings and mutual hostilities, the Cayuse were angry at the influx of settlers, whom they believed were destroying their way of life. For instance, the Cayuse believed that to plough the ground was to desecrate the spirit of the Earth. The settlers, as agriculturalists, naturally did not agree. Several skirmishes and massacres happened before the Cayuse eventually surrendered and ceded most of their tribal lands. | North America |
| Whitman Massacre | Walla Walla Massacre | 19th | 1847 | 1847 | The Whitman massacre, also known as the Walla Walla massacre, was a violent attack on the Whitman Mission. The mission was run by Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife Narcissa, who had been living among the Cayuse tribe for several years, providing medical care and education. The massacre was triggered by a measles epidemic that broke out among the Cayuse, killing many of them. Some members of the tribe believed that the Whitmans were responsible for the epidemic and decided to attack the mission, killing the Whitmans and 11 other people. The massacre marked the beginning of the Cayuse War. | North America |
| Jicarilla War | | 19th | 1849 | 1855 | The Jicarilla War was a conflict between the Jicarilla Apache tribe and the United States government, which was expanding into their territory in northern New Mexico. The Jicarilla had long been raiding American settlements, and tensions reached a boiling point when a group of Jicarilla warriors attacked and killed a group of American traders. Ultimately, the war resulted in the defeat of the Jicarilla, who were forced to surrender and sign a treaty ceding much of their land to the United States. | North America |
| Battle at Fort Utah | Provo War | 19th | 1849 | 1850 | The Battle at Fort Utah, also known as the Provo War, occurred in Utah County, Utah Territory. The conflict arose due to tensions between the Ute people and Mormon settlers who had moved west to escape religious discrimination. The Utes felt that the settlers were encroaching on their traditional hunting grounds and taking resources essential for their survival. The Utes launched an attack on the fort, resulting in a three-day battle that claimed the lives of several people on both sides. The battle marked the start of a complicated relationship between the Utes and the Mormon settlers. | North America |
| Yuma War | | 19th | 1850 | 1853 | The Yuma War was a conflict that occurred in the Colorado River region of the United States. The war was between the Quechan people, also known as the Yuma, and the United States Army. The primary motivation for the war was control of the Colorado River and the resources it provided. The war ended with the Quechan people forcibly relocated to a reservation and signing a peace treaty in the summer of 1853, which sparked a short war between the Yuma and the Cocopah. | North America |
| Walker War | Wakara's War | 19th | 1853 | 1854 | The Walkers War, also known as Wakara's War, was a conflict between the Ute Native Americans and the Mormon settlers in Utah. The war was characterised by several disputes and skirmishes over property and land. The Ute tribe was motivated to go to war after an increase in the presence of Mormon settlers on their lands. The Mormon settlers wanted to establish their religious community in the area. They believed their divinely inspired mission to build a Zion community would ultimately benefit the Ute tribe. | North America |
| Glanton Massacre | | 19th | 1850 | 1850 | The Glanton Massacre occurred when a band of Quechans killed and scalped the Glanton organisation, consequential of the brutal murders carried out by the group of mercenaries led by John Joel Glanton. Mexican authorities hired the organisation to eliminate troublesome Native Americans in the southwestern United States for bounties, including men, women, and children. They became so ruthless that they were declared outlaws by the authorities who hired them and forced them to flee to Arizona. | North America |
| Mariposa War | Yosemite Indian War | 19th | 1850 | 1851 | The Mariposa War, also known as the Yosemite Indian War, was a conflict that occurred in California, pitting the Mariposa Battalion of American miners against the Indigenous people of the region, particularly the Southern Sierra Miwok. The war was driven by the American's desire for land and resources. Miners searching for gold forced Native Americans off their historic lands and others into service in the mines. The conflict resulted in the defeat of the Indigenous people and their displacement from their traditional lands. | North America |
| Grattan Massacre | | 19th | 19 August 1854 | 19 August 1854 | The Grattan Massacre was a conflict between the United States Army and the Brulé, a subculture of the Lakota Sioux people. It is considered the start of the First Sioux War. A detachment led by lieutenant John Grattan confronted the Brulé Lakota chief near Fort Laramie, Wyoming, demanding the arrest of an Indian man accused of killing a cow from a Mormon wagon train. The situation quickly escalated when the chief, known as Conquering Bear, was shot. The Brulé then attacked and killed all 29 soldiers and lieutenant Grattan. | North America |
| Sioux Wars | | 19th | 1854 | 1891 | The Sioux Wars were a series of conflicts between the Sioux and the United States government. From the Lakota perspective, these wars were a struggle to protect their traditional way of life and their ancestral lands, which were encroached upon by white settlers. They fought to defend their people and culture, including their spiritual practices and the sacred Black Hills. The US government wished to expand westward and assert authority over Native American tribes. The conflicts were often brutal and resulted in significant loss of life on both sides. | North America |
| Klickitat War | | 19th | 1855 | 1855 | The Klickitat War was a conflict between the Klickitat tribe and the United States government in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Settlers encroached along the Columbia River where the Klickitat and other tribes of the Yakama lived. The governor of Washington Territory, Isaac Stevens, coerced Native American tribes into signing treaties that ceded most of their lands and rights. When met with resistance from the tribes, he used his troops to pacify the region into submission. The majority of the Yakama were forcibly relocated to the Yakama Indian Reservation. | North America |
| Rogue River Wars | | 19th | 1855 | 1856 | The Rogue River Wars were a series of skirmishes fought by the United States Army and local militias against Native American tribes in the Rogue River Valley of southern Oregon. Settlers moved to the region, hoping to prosper from gold and pelts. The ongoing conflicts stemmed from tensions over land ownership, cultural differences, and the mistreatment of Native Americans by settlers and the US government. The US Army eventually defeated the Native American tribes and forced them onto reservations, including the Siletz Reservation. | North America |
| Seminole Wars | Florida Wars | 19th | 1817, 1835, 1855, | 1818, 1842, 1858 | The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, consisted of three major conflicts between the United States and the Seminoles. The first phase began over efforts from US authorities to recapture Black slaves living among Seminole bands. Following this, the Seminoles resisted the United States government's demands that they leave the region under the Indian Removal Act. The final phase of the war resulted from renewed efforts to track down the Seminole remnant remaining in Florida. It ended with the United States paying the most resistant band of refugees to go West. | North America |
| Yakima War | | 19th | 1855 | 1858 | The Yakima War was a conflict between the United States and the Yakama tribe of the Pacific Northwest. The Yakama were angered by the encroachment of white settlers, moving to their territory driven by the widely publicised discovery of gold. The Yakama were also frustrated by the US government's attempts to force them onto reservations and failure to uphold treaty agreements. The Yakama united with the Walla Walla and Cayuse tribes in resistance, resulting in several battles and massacres before the tribes were defeated and forced onto reservations. | North America |
| Cascades Massacre | | 19th | 26 March 1856 | 26 March 1856 | The Cascades Massacre was when a coalition of tribes launched an attack against white soldiers and settlers, angered over broken treaties and in an attempt to repel settlers from their lands. Many settlers sought cheap farming in the west as the population of the east boomed whilst available land dwindled. The attacking native warriors consisted of Yakama, Klickitat, and Cascades tribes, now identified as Wasco tribes. The attack resulted in the deaths of 14 settlers and three US soldiers. In response, the United States dispatched reinforcements to prevent further attacks. | North America |
| Puget Sound War | | 19th | 1855 | 1865 | The Puget Sound War was a conflict between the United States government and the native tribes of the Puget Sound region in present-day Washington state. The war began with tensions between the two groups over land rights and the imposition of the Treaty of Point Elliott, which ceded tribal lands to the US government. The conflict consisted of several violent clashes and atrocities committed by both sides, including the massacre at White River. The war ended with the defeat of the native tribes and their forced relocation. | North America |
| Treaty of Point Elliott | | 19th | 22 Janurary 1855 | | The Treaty of Point Elliott of 1855 was a land settlement treaty between the United States government and Native American tribes of the Puget Sound region in the Washington Territory. It was signed on January 22, 1855, and ratified in 1859. The signatories included Chief Seattle, Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens, and several Native American tribes. Of the 100 signatures, 82 were by Indian chiefs, headmen, and delegates. The treaty established reservations and fishing rights for some tribes but did not end the fighting that continued in the region. | North America |
| Klamath War | Klamath River Massacres | 19th | 1855 | 1855 | The Klamath War, also known as the Klamath River Massacres, was a conflict between local settlers and Yurok and Karok Native American tribes in Klamath County, California. The war began from a series of incidents and a rumour of an Indian uprising against the miners along the Klamath River. The settlers demanded that the Native Americans be disarmed and expelled from the county, leading to hostilities between them and a group of Native Americans known as the "Red Caps." The conflict resulted in the deaths of many Native people and is considered part of the California Genocide. | North America |
| Tintic War | | 19th | 1856 | 1856 | The Tintic War was a series of skirmishes between settlers and the Ute tribe in Utah's Tintic and Cedar Valleys. Displaced from their land and struggling to survive, the Utes resorted to stealing from the settlers who had established their new lives on the Ute’s traditional lands. Agriculture and livestock enterprises depleted the land of resources essential to the Ute’s ways of living. The war ended with federal government intervention, relocating the Utes to the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. Unresolved land issues persisted after World War II, leading to compensation claims. | North America |
| Tule River War | | 19th | 1856 | 1856 | The Tule River War of 1856 was a six-week conflict between American settlers, a detachment of the US Army, and the Yokuts in the southern San Joaquin Valley. The conflict was the consequence of American miners encroaching onto Indigenous lands. Although the US drafted a treaty in 1851 defining a proposed reservation for the local tribes, the Senate failed to ratify it. Throughout the 1850s, settler-led militias attacked Native American villages, and in retaliation, Native Americans raided cattle and horses. | North America |
| Coeur d'Alene War | Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War | 19th | 1858 | 1858 | The Coeur d'Alene War, also known as the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene-Pend d'oreille-Paloos War, was the second phase of the Yakima War. The conflict was between the United States Army and allied Native American tribes, including the Skitswish, Kalispell, Spokane, Palouse, and Northern Paiute. The war occurred due to tensions over the US government’s broken promises and white settlement in tribal lands. Following the Battle of Four Lakes and the Battle of Spokane Plains, the Chiefs of the Skitswish tribe sent a Skitswish member to Colonel George Wright's camp to present their peace proposal. | North America |
| Mendocino War | | 19th | 1859 | 1860 | The Mendocino War was a conflict between the Yuki tribe and white settlers in Mendocino County, California. It was caused by settler intrusion and slave raids on native lands, resulting in native retaliation. The Eel River Rangers, led by Walter S. Jarboe, raided the countryside to remove the natives from settler territory and move them onto the Nome Cult Farm. They killed hundreds of warriors and countless women and children in the process. The conflict has been labelled a genocide by historians. Tensions left unresolved from this conflict would lead to the Round Valley War. | North America |
| Fraser Canyon War | | 19th | 1858 | 1858 | The Fraser Canyon War, also known as the Fraser River War, was a conflict between the Nlaka'pamux and white miners during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in the newly declared Colony of British Columbia. Driven by a hunger for gold and a sense of entitlement to Indigenous territories and resources, American miners attacked the Nlaka’pamux communities. The war ended relatively peacefully when the two sides called a truce. Under threat of further violence, the Nlaka’pamux agreed to grant miners access to their territories and resources, bringing the immediate conflict to a close. | North America |
| Bald Hills War | | 19th | 1858 | 1864 | The Bald Hills War was fought by the California Militia, California Volunteers, and the US Army against various Native American tribes. Taking place in Mendocino, Trinity, Humboldt, Klamath, and Del Norte counties, it was part of the broader effort to unseat the native population. The ongoing conflict targeted the Chilula, Lassik, Hupa, Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone tribes, and many more. Most of the tribes were forced to make peace by August 1864. California Volunteers manned local garrisons until the Civil War's end in 1865. | North America |
| Mohave War | | 19th | 1858 | 1859 | The Mohave War was a conflict between the Mohave people and American settlers passing through their land during the California Gold Rush. The hope of striking rich by mining gold continued to attract settlers to the West for decades. The influx of migrants passing through the Mohave's traditional lands, combined with simple misunderstandings, led to conflict. Fort Mohave was established as a base for the US Army against the Mohave, leading to the Mohave surrendering due to the superior weaponry and tactics of the Americans. A peace treaty was signed in 1859, ending the Mohave's opposition. | North America |
| Paiute War | Pyramid Lake War | 19th | 1860 | 1860 | The Paiute War, also known as the Pyramid Lake War, occurred in present-day Nevada. Northern Paiutes, Shoshone, and Bannock tribes fought against settlers and the US military. Preceding 1860, the Paiutes lived in relative peace with settlers. Nonetheless, they resented the encroachment into their territory. After escalating tension, two major conflicts resulted in the deaths of numerous settlers and Indigenous people. Skirmishes and raids continued until a ceasefire was reached in August 1860, but no treaty was signed. | North America |
| Yavapai Wars | Tonto Wars | 19th | 1861 | 1875 | The Yavapai Wars, also known as the Tonto Wars, were conflicts between Yavapai and Tonto tribes against the United States in Arizona Territory. The conflicts were sparked by tensions over land use, as settlers encroached on Yavapai territory and disrupted traditional hunting and gathering practices. The Yavapai were viewed as Western Apache due to their close connection with tribes like Tonto and Pinal. In 1875, the war ended with Yavapai's expulsion from the Camp Verde Reservation to San Carlos, known as Exodus Day. | North America |
| Owens Valley War | | 19th | 1862 | 1863 | The Owens Valley War occurred from 1862 to 1863 between California Volunteers, settlers, and the Owens Valley Paiutes, allied with the Shoshone and Kawaiisu tribes. The conflict arose due to heavy snowfall and flooding during the winter of 1861-1862, which caused the local Paiute to suffer significant loss of game, and competition with cattle driven into the valley. This led to tension between the Paiute and cattlemen, ultimately resulting in the removal of many Native Californians to Fort Tejon in 1863 and minor hostilities continuing until 1867. | North America |
| Dakota War of 1862 | Sioux Uprising | 19th | 1862 | 1862 | The Dakota War of 1862, also known as the Sioux Uprising, was a conflict between the United States and the Dakota tribe. They were forced by the United States to cede large tracts of land, causing tensions to rise. Crop failure in 1861, followed by a harsh winter and depletion of wild game, led to starvation and severe hardship for the Dakota. Following this, Dakota warriors attacked hundreds of settlers, causing thousands to flee. This led to the largest one-day mass execution in American history and the abolition of eastern Dakota and Ho-Chunk reservations in Minnesota. | North America |
| Hualapai War | Walapai War | 19th | 1865 | 1870 | The Hualapai War, also known as the Walapai War, was fought between the Hualapai Native Americans and the United States in Arizona Territory. Tensions over the encroachment of Native American lands due to the gold rush settlement led to guerrilla warfare, with the Yavapai participating on the side of the Hualapai. Diseases forced most of the Hualapais to surrender in 1869, though some skirmishing continued for two more years. In 1882, the Hualapai relocated to a 900,000-acre reservation. An estimated one-third of the Hualapai population was lost between 1865 and 1870. | North America |
| King William's War | Second Indian War | 17th | 1689 | 1697 | King William's War, also known as the Second Indian War, was a conflict fought between France and England in the late 17th century. The war was a result of the ongoing power struggle between the two nations for control of North America. The French, who had established settlements in Canada and the Great Lakes region, saw the war as a way to protect their territorial claims. The English, who had colonies in the New England area, saw it as an opportunity to expand their territory and gain access to valuable resources. Both sides suffered heavy losses, with the war ending in a stalemate. | North America |
| Treaty of Rijswijk | | 17th | 20 September 1697 | | The Treaty of Rijswijk was signed in 1697, ending the Nine Years' War between France and the Grand Alliance (led by England and the Dutch Republic). Both sides agreed to return all captured territories and to respect each other's sovereignty. France, who had been on the offensive during the war, saw the treaty as a disappointment as they did not gain any significant territory. Whereas the Grand Alliance saw it as a victory as they were able to maintain their territories and prevent France from expanding their power. | North America |
| Queen Anne's War | Third Indian War | 18th | 1702 | 1713 | Queen Anne's War was also known as the Third Indian War. It was a struggle between France and England for control of North America, as well as a continuation of the ongoing war in Europe. The English colonies in North America, along with their Native American allies, fought against the French colonies and their Native American allies. The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which gave England control over Newfoundland and Acadia, while France retained control of Quebec. Both sides suffered heavy losses, including devastating attacks on colonial settlements. | North America |
| Father Rale's War | Dummer's War | 18th | 25 July 1722 | 15 December 1725 | Father Rale's War, also known as Drummer’s War, was a conflict that occurred in what is now Maine and New Hampshire. It was a battle between the Wabanaki Confederacy, an alliance of several Native American tribes led by Father Sébastien Rale, and the British colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The Wabanaki were fighting to protect their land and way of life from British colonisation. The British saw the conflict as a way to assert their control over the region and expand their settlements. The war ended with a treaty in which the Wabanaki were forced to cede more land to the British. | North America |
| Dummer's Treaty | | 18th | 15 December 1725 | | Dummer's Treaty was part of the Peace and Friendship Treaties between the British Empire and the Wabanaki Confederacy. It was signed to establish peace between the two sides, who had been engaged in a long-standing conflict over land and resources. The British viewed the treaty as a way to secure their territorial claims and access to valuable resources, while the Wabanaki Confederacy hoped to preserve their sovereignty and protect their land and resources from British encroachment. Despite the treaty, tensions between the two sides continued, ultimately leading to further conflict. | North America |
| War of Jenkins' Ear | | 18th | 1739 | 1748 | The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that later led to the War of the Austrian Succession. The war was fought over colonial territories in North America and the Caribbean, as well as trade disputes and the treatment of British sailors by the Spanish. The interest from the British was to protect their colonies and trade routes, while the Spanish saw it as a defence of their own territorial claims and interests in the region. The war ultimately ended in a stalemate, with both sides agreeing to return to the status quo from before the conflict. | North America |
| King George's War | | 18th | 1744 | 1748 | King George's War was a conflict between Great Britain and France and was the North American arena of the European War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of four French and Indian Wars, and took place in the provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire and Novia Scotia. The British managed to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg, but when the war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 this expansion was returned to the French. While the land claims were restored, the treaty failed to resolve territorial tensions. | North America |
| Treaty of the French and Indian War | Treaty of Paris | 18th | 10 February 1763 | | The Treaty of the French and Indian War, also known as the Treaty of Paris, was signed in 1763 and marked the end of the war between France and Great Britain for control of North America. For the British, the treaty was a victory as they gained control of all French territory in North America, including Canada. However, for the French, it was a defeat as they lost their colonies and their influence in the region. The treaty also had a significant impact on the Native American tribes, who were forced to cede land and were affected by the shifting power dynamics between the European powers. | North America |
| French and Indian War | Seven Years' War | 18th | 28 May 1754 | 10 February 1763 | The French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, was a conflict between France and Great Britain for control of North America. The war began in 1754 and lasted until 1763. The British saw the war as an opportunity to expand their territory and gain control of valuable resources, while the French sought to protect their colonies and trade routes. The war was fought on multiple fronts, including North America, Europe, and India. In the end, the British emerged victorious, and France was forced to cede all of its territories in North America to Britain. | North America |
| Pontiac's Rebellion | Pontiac's War | 18th | 1763 | 1765 | Pontiac's Rebellion, also known as Pontiac's War, was a conflict between Native American tribes and British colonial forces in the Great Lakes region of North America. The Native Americans, led by Chief Pontiac, sought to resist the expansion of British settlements into their territory. The British saw the rebellion as a challenge to their authority and a threat to the stability of their colonies. The conflict lasted several years, with both sides engaging in raids and battles. Eventually, a peace treaty was negotiated, but tensions between Native Americans and British colonists continued. | North America |
| Treaty of Oswego | | 18th | July 1766 | | The Treaty of Oswego ended the war between the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy and the English. For the Iroquois, the treaty represented a surrender of their territory and a loss of independence. The English saw it as a victory, securing control over the region and establishing their dominance over the native peoples. The treaty required the Iroquois to abandon their alliances with the French and recognise British sovereignty. This agreement set the stage for future conflicts between Native American nations and European settlers in North America. | North America |
| American Revolutionary War | American War of Independence | 18th | 19 April 1775 | 3 September 1783 | The American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence, was fought between the American colonies and the British Empire. The American patriots, led by figures such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, believed in their right to self-governance and were fighting against the unjust taxation and infringement of their rights by the British government. The British saw the conflict as an act of rebellion and sought to maintain their control over the colonies. The war resulted in the independence of the United States and the formation of a new government. | North America |
| Tecumseh's War | Tecumseh's Rebellion | 19th | 7 November 1811 | 5 October 1813 | Tecumseh's War was a conflict between the Native American Confederacy led by Tecumseh and the United States in the early 19th century. Tecumseh's Native American Confederacy, which consisted of several tribes, sought to resist the encroachment of American settlers on their ancestral lands. The United States saw Tecumseh's War as a threat to their expansion and sought to quash the uprising. For the Native Americans, the war was a struggle to preserve their way of life and protect their land from the Americans who wished to pave the way for further expansion. | North America |
| War of 1812 | Second American War of Independence | 19th | 18 June 1812 | 17 February 1815 | The War of 1812, also known as the Second American War of Independence, was a conflict between the United States and the British Empire. From the American perspective, the war was a struggle for independence and a response to the impressment of American sailors by the British navy. The British saw it as a necessary measure to protect their commerce and suppress American aggression. The war resulted in significant losses for both sides, but it ultimately ended with a peace treaty signed in 1814. The Treaty of Ghent did not resolve any major issues, but it did restore the status quo ante bellum. | North America |
| Black Hawk War | | 19th | 6 April 1832 | 27 August 1832 | The Black Hawk War was fought between the United States government and a group of Native American tribes led by the Sauk leader Black Hawk. The Native Americans were forced to cede their ancestral lands in Illinois and were attempting to reclaim it. The US saw this as an act of rebellion and sought to maintain control of the territory. The Native Americans were fighting for their ancestral land and their way of life, which was threatened by the influx of settlers and the US government's expansionist policies. The Native American tribes were defeated and thousands were forced to relocate. | North America |
| Texas Revolution | War of Texas Independence | 19th | 2 October 1835 | 21 April 1836 | The Texas Revolution, also known as the War of Texas Independence, was a battle between Mexico and the American settlers in Texas over independence and land rights. Mexico saw the Americans as a threat to their sovereignty, while the settlers sought independence from the rule of Mexico. In 1835, the Texans declared their independence and fought against the Mexican army in several battles. Eventually, the Texans emerged victorious and gained their independence in 1836. However, Mexico did not recognise their independence and tensions between the two sides continued for years to come. | North America |
| Treaties of Velasco | | 19th | 14 May 1836 | | The Treaties of Velasco were two agreements signed in 1836 between Mexico and the newly independent Republic of Texas, ending the Texas Revolution. Mexico saw the treaties as a way to put a stop to the conflict and bring peace to the region, while Texas saw them as recognition of their independence and sovereignty. The treaties granted Texas the right to navigate the Rio Grande, but Mexico maintained that the agreements were only temporary and not legally binding. Despite this, Texas used the treaties as proof of their independence in negotiations with other nations. | North America |
| Mexican-American War | | 19th | 25 April 1846 | 2 February 1848 | The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico. The US saw the war as an opportunity to expand their territory and believed that Mexico was illegally occupying American land. Mexico saw the American invasion as an unjust aggression, and they fought to defend their sovereignty and territory. The war resulted in a significant expansion of American territory, as the US gained California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Oklahoma. | North America |
| Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo | | 19th | 2 February 1848 | | The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty recognised Mexico's loss of the territories of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma, and parts of Texas to the United States. Mexico saw the treaty as a defeat, surrendering 55 per cent of its land to the American government. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo solidified the United States as a dominant power in North America and forever altered the borders of Mexico. | North America |
| Battle of Mabila | | 16th | October 1540 | | The Battle of Mabila was a critical moment in the conflict between Hernando de Soto and the indigenous peoples of what is now the south-eastern United States. De Soto and his Spanish conquistadors saw the indigenous peoples as obstacles to their quest for wealth and power. The battle took place in what is now Alabama, in 1540. It was a fierce and bloody conflict. De Soto's forces ultimately emerged victorious, but the battle had a profound impact on the indigenous peoples, who suffered significant losses and faced ongoing threats from the Spanish in the years to come. | North America |
| Tiguex War | | 16th | December 1540 | March 1541 | The Tiguex War was a conflict between the Pueblo Indians and Spanish colonisers in New Mexico. The Pueblo Indians, who had lived in the area for generations, saw the Spanish as invaders who disrupted their way of life and imposed their religion and customs. The Spanish saw the Pueblo as heathens who needed to be converted and civilised. Tensions remained after the conflict, with the Spanish forcibly relocating the Pueblo to nearby missions, and came to a head again in 1680 when the Pueblo staged a successful revolt against the Spanish driving them out of the area for a period of 12 years. | North America |
| Mixtón War | | 16th | 1540 | 1542 | The Mixtón War was a conflict that took place in Mexico in the late 16th century between the Caxcanes indigenous peoples and the Spanish conquerors. The indigenous peoples were revolting against the oppressive rule and exploitation of the Spanish colonisers, who sought to control their resources and enslave the local population. The Mixtón War was marked by brutal violence and saw the indigenous peoples put up a strong resistance, but in the end, the Spanish were successful in suppressing the rebellion and consolidating their power. | North America |
| Chichimeca War | | 16th | 1550 | 1590 | The Chichimeca War was a conflict between the Spanish colonisers and the indigenous Chichimeca people in Mexico during the second half of the 16th century. The Spanish were seeking to expand their territories and extract valuable resources from the region, while the Chichimecas were fighting to protect their lands, culture and way of life. The war resulted in the Spanish exerting their control over the region but at a great cost. The Chichimecas suffered greatly and their culture was forever changed. | North America |
| Navajo Wars | | 17th | 1660 | 1866 | The Navajo Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Navajo tribe and the United States government, largely in the 19th century. The Navajo, who had long inhabited the area that is now the southwestern United States, resisted the US government's efforts to forcibly relocate them to reservations. The US army responded with military force, leading to several wars and skirmishes over a period of several decades. The conflict finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Bosque Redondo in 1868, which allowed the Navajo to return to their ancestral lands. | North America |
| Treaty of Bosque Redondo | | 19th | 1 June 1868 | | The Treaty of Bosque Redondo, signed in 1868, marked the end of the Navajo Wars and saw the forced relocation of the Navajo people to the Bosque Redondo Reservation in New Mexico. The treaty stipulated that the Navajo would remain on the reservation and receive food, clothing, and other resources in exchange for their obedience and loyalty to the US government. The Treaty of Bosque Redondo had long-lasting impacts on the Navajo people, who struggled to rebuild their lives and maintain their traditions on the reservation. | North America |
| Anglo-Powhatan Wars | | 17th | 1609 | 1646 | The Anglo-Powhatan Wars were a series of conflicts between the English settlers in Virginia and the Powhatan Native American confederacy. The first war began in 1609, when the English began to take over Powhatan lands. The English regarded the Powhatan as a threat to their expansion. Chief Wahunsunacawh, referred to as Chief Powhatan by the English, led the fight against the settlers. Throughout the series of wars, both sides engaged in acts of violence and diplomacy. Ultimately, the English won, forcing the Powhatan to accept their rule and lose much of their land and culture. | North America |
| Treaty of 1677 | Treaty of Middle Plantation | 17th | 29 May 1677 | | The Treaty 1677, also known as the Treaty of Middle Plantation, was signed between the Virginia colonists and the Native American tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy. From the colonist's perspective, the treaty was necessary to establish peace and secure their settlements in the face of repeated attacks. The Native Americans saw the treaty as a forced agreement, imposed on them by the colonists who had taken their land and resources. They felt the treaty did not adequately address their grievances or protect their rights. Overall, the Treaty of 1677 represented a fragile peace. | North America |
| Pequot War | | 17th | August 1636 | 1637 | The Pequot War was a conflict between the Pequot tribe and English settlers in the early 17th century in what is now Connecticut. The Pequots were a powerful tribe that controlled trade and were perceived as a threat by the settlers. The war broke out in 1637, leading to a brutal massacre of Pequot people by the English and their Native American allies. The Pequots saw this as an act of aggression, while the settlers saw it as necessary for self-defence. The war ended with the Treaty of Hartford in 1638, which stripped the Pequots of their power and land. | North America |
| Pequot Massacre | Mystic Massacre | 17th | 26 May 1637 | | The Pequot Massacre, also known as the Mystic Massacre, was a brutal event that took place in the New England colonies. The conflict arose from tensions between the Pequot tribe and English settlers who sought control over the region. The conflict culminated in a violent attack on the Pequot village Mystic Fort, where hundreds of tribe members were killed and the village burned to the ground. The massacre is seen as a seminal moment in the history of the region and is remembered as a devastating example of the violence and fear that marked the early years of colonial America. | North America |
| Treaty of Hartford | | 17th | 21 September 1638 | | The Treaty of Hartford ended the Pequot War between the English settlers and the Pequot tribe in New England. The English viewed the treaty as a victory as it secured their control over the region and allowed them to establish settlements without fear of attack from the Pequots. The Pequots saw it as a surrender and a loss of their sovereignty and territory. The treaty required the Pequots to give up their firearms, pay a hefty fine, and become vassals of the English. The treaty set a precedent for the subjugation of Native American tribes in the region. | North America |
| Beaver Wars | Iroquois Wars | 17th | 1609 | 1701 | The Beaver Wars, also known as the Iroquois Wars, were a series of wars fought in the 17th century between the Iroquois Confederacy and the Hurons, Algonquins, and French. The Iroquois were seeking to control the beaver fur trade and expand their territory, while the Hurons and Algonquins were trying to protect their trading relationships and territory. The French also sought control of the fur trade and allied themselves with the Hurons and Algonquins. The wars were characterised by brutal fighting and represent the struggle for control over resources in the early colonial period. | North America |
| Kieft's War | Wappinger War | 17th | 25 February 1643 | 1645 | Kieft's War, also known as the Wappinger War, was a conflict between the Dutch settlers and the indigenous Lenape people in the New Netherland territory. The Dutch governor, Willem Kieft, believed the Lenape were uncooperative and sought to assert control over them through violence. The Lenape saw the Dutch as intruders and resisted the governor's demands. The war resulted in numerous raids and massacres by both sides, causing significant casualties and destruction. The Dutch eventually decided they could not defeat the Lenape and reached a peaceful agreement. | North America |
| War of Regulation | Regulator Movement | 18th | 1766 | 1771 | The War of Regulation, also known as the Regulator Movement, was fought between citizens of Provincial North Carolina (the Regulators) and British colonial forces from 1766 to 1771. The Regulators believed colonial officials to be corrupt and opposed the taxation and fee system that the officials imposed. The war was mostly fought through small acts of violence, with the Battle of Alamance being the first organised conflict of the war to take place, on 16 May 1771. When the Regulators lost the battle, the movement came to an end. Some of the Regulators were hanged by colonial forces, but the majority were pardoned. | North America |
| Victorio’s War | Victorio Campaign | 19th | 1879 | 1881 | Victorio’s War, also known as the Victorio Campaign, was an armed conflict that took place between Apache followers of Victorio, the United States, and Mexico. Victorio was a warrior and leader of the Chihenne band of Apaches. After being forced from his homeland, like many other Native American groups, and being faced with arrest, Victorio led a guerrilla war, predominantly across the southern United States and northern Mexico. Victorio was killed at the Battle of Tres Castillos in October 1880, alongside many of his fellow warriors. | North America |
| First and Second Cortina War | Cortina Troubles | 19th | 1859 | 1861 | The First and Second Cortina War, also known as the Cortina Troubles, were armed struggles led by Mexican rancher Juan Cortina against constituents of the United States Army. The First Cortina War began at Brownsville in July 1859 as a response to the town marshal, Robert Shears, brutalising Cortina’s former employee, Tomás Cabrera. The struggles lasted a total of four years, with the Second Cortina War only lasting a year, during which Cortina lost 216 men. In July 1875, Cortina was arrested and taken to Mexico City, where he died in 1894. | North America |
| Colorado War | | 19th | 1863 | 1865 | The Colorado War was an armed conflict between the Southern Cheyenne, Arapaho, Brulé, and Lakota peoples and the United States Army, Colorado militia, and white settlers of the Colorado Territory between 1863 and 1865. As a result of the gold rush, there was an increase in the number of white settlers in Colorado, which caused resistance among indigenous groups. | North America |
| Sand Creek Massacre | Chivington Massacre | 19th | 29 November 1864 | 29 November 1864 | The Sand Creek Massacre, also known as the Chivington Massacre, took place on 29 November 1864 and resulted in the death of approximately 150 Native Americans, mostly women and children. A group of cavalrymen from the United States Army opened fire on a community of Cheyenne and Arapaho people, mutilating its inhabitants and subsequently destroying the village. The massacre is considered part of the series of events that constitute the Colorado War, yet stands out as a key event due to the brutal nature of the massacre. | North America |
| Red Cloud’s War | Bozeman War | 19th | 1866 | 1868 | Red Cloud’s War, also known as the Bozeman War or the Powder River War, took place between 1866 and 1868 in the Wyoming and Montana territories. The conflict was between the allied Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples against the United States and the Crow people. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present-day north-central Wyoming. The United States subsequently named the war after Red Cloud, an Oglala Lakota chief associated with the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Laramie | Sioux Treaty of 1868 | 19th | 1868 | | The Treaty of Fort Laramie, also known as the Sioux Treaty of 1868, was an agreement between the government of the United States and various groups from the Sioux and Arapaho peoples. The agreement led to the end of Red Cloud’s War and established the Great Sioux Reservation located to the west of the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota and Nebraska. However, the treaty was never honoured by the United States. | North America |
| Modoc War | Lava Beds War | 19th | 29 November 1872 | 1 June 1873 | The Modoc War, also known as the Lava Beds War, was an armed conflict between the Modoc Native American people and the United States Army. It took place predominantly in the winter of 1872 and the spring of 1873 and was the only major Indian War fought in California. The war began with the army attempting to move the Modoc people back to the Klamath Reservation in Oregon under orders from the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The small Modoc force made use of the surrounding lava beds, holding off the more numerous United States Army forces for months. Kintpuash, also known as Captain Jack, a chief of the Modoc tribe, and three warriors were executed, and two others were sentenced to life in prison. The remaining 153 Modoc people of the band were sent to Indian Territory (pre-statehood Oklahoma),where they were held as prisoners of war until 1909. | North America |
| Colfax Massacre | Colfax Riot | 19th | 13 April 1873 | 13 April 1873 | The Colfax Massacre, also known as the Colfax Riot, took place in the town of Colfax, Louisiana. On 13 April, a large group of armed white men, including members of supremacist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camellia, attacked the town courthouse in response to an election result. Racial violence escalated brutally into a battle-turned-massacre, resulting in the deaths of approximately 150 African-American citizens and three white citizens. | North America |
| Great Sioux War of 1876 | Black Hills War | 19th | 1876 | 1877 | The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War, was a series of battles between the allied Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne against the United States. The Battle of Little Bighorn, also known as Cluster’s Last Stand, is among the many battles that took place during the war and the most storied. It is known for the defeat of the United States forces and the death of Colonel Custer. However, after many military campaigns and diplomatic efforts, the indigenous tribes began to surrender in early 1877. | North America |
| Hamburg Massacre | Red Shirt Massacre | 19th | 8 July 1876 | 8 July 1876 | The Hamburg Massacre, also known as the Red Shirt Massacre, was a massacre which took place on 8 July 1876 in the town of Hamburg, South Carolina. During local elections, white farmers sought to suppress African Americans’ civil rights and voting rights through violence and by charging a Black militia with having obstructed the road on 4 July. The court case was postponed to 8 July, at which point more than 100 armed white men from local counties gathered in town. The African Americans attempted to flee, but many were captured and six were murdered. | North America |
| Buffalo Hunters’ War | Staked Plains War | 19th | 1877 | 1877 | The Buffalo Hunters’ War, also known as the Staked Plains War, was a conflict between Comanche warriors and buffalo hunters. In late 1876, Black Horse led his family and other Comanche warriors to Texas, where they, allied with Apache warriors, in February began attacking the camps of buffalo hunters in the Red River County. The Battle of Yellow House Canyon took place on 18 March, on the High Plains of Texas, and was the peak battle of the conflict. There were casualties on both sides, and the outnumbered hunters were forced to withdraw down the canyon. Many of the Native Americans returned to reservations, and buffalo hunting continued. By the winter of the following year, the main herd of buffalo on the South Plains had been destroyed. | North America |
| Wounded Knee Massacre | Battle of Wounded Knee | 19th | 29 December 1890 | 29 December 1890 | The Wounded Knee Massacre, also known as the Battle of Wounded Knee, was a conflict between the United States Army and the Lakota Sioux Native Americans which resulted in the deaths of approximately 250 Lakota Sioux people, and 33 soldiers of the United States Army. In the year before the massacre, the Lakota Sioux people had begun to take up a revived native religion referred to as the Ghost Dance, which alarmed the settlers. The Ghost Dance Lakota Sioux subsequently attempted to move to another Native American reservation, but whilst migrating, they came under fire by the 7th Cavalry. | North America |
| Northern Cheyenne Exodus | Dull Knife’s Raid | 19th | September 1878 | 27 March 1879 | The Northern Cheyenne Exodus, also known as Dull Knife’s Raid, was a conflict between the Northern Cheyenne people and the United States Army. After being placed in the Southern Cheyenne reservation, the Northern Cheyenne left the reservation in an attempt to return to the North. The exodus started on 10 September 1878 when the Northern Cheyenne fled north, with several battles taking place on the way. By April 1979, the Northern Cheyenne had surrendered. Five years later, President Chester A. Arthur created a reservation for the Northern Cheyenne in their homeland of Montana. | North America |
| Hells Canyon Massacre | Snake River Massacre | 19th | May 1887 | Exact dates contested | The Hells Canyon Massacre, also known as the Snake River Massacre, took place over two days in May 1887, the exact dates of which are contested. Thirty-one Chinese miners were killed when seven white horse thieves ambushed and gunned down the miners with the aim of robbery. Due to the remoteness of Hells Canyon, which provides a boundary between Idaho and Oregon, little is known about the massacre. | North America |
| Garza Revolution | Garza War | 19th | 15 September 1891 | March 1893 | The Garza Rebellion, also known as the Garza War, was an armed conflict between Mexican revolutionaries and the allied Mexican and United States Army. The war started on 15 September 1891 when Catarino Garza led Mexican revolutionaries into Mexico from Texas, declaring a revolution against Mexico’s dictator, Porfirio Diaz. After approximately two years of fighting, the Mexican American allied forces defeated the revolutionaries. Garza fled to Costa Rica and was subsequently killed in Panama in 1895. | North America |
| Bay View Massacre | Bay View Tragedy | 19th | 5 May 1886 | 5 May 1886 | The Bay View Massacre, also known as the Bay View Tragedy, occurred on 5 May 1886 following a mass strike that had taken place intending to create eight-hour working day laws. Thousands of protestors had taken to the streets of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and on 5 May 1886, approximately 1,500 protestors made their way to Bay View Rolling Mills, a company notorious for abusing employees through excessive labour. Governor Jeremiah Rush, who had called to the scene the local militia, ordered the protestors to disperse. When they did not, the militia fired into the crowd, killing seven people including a young boy. | North America |
| Aroostook War | Madawaska War | 19th | Date contested, 1838 | 21 March 1839 | The Aroostook War, also called the Madawaska War, was a bloodless conflict between the United States and the United Kingdom over the disputed boundary between the US state of Maine and the British Canadian Province of New Brunswick. Actual combat did not take place, as the dispute mostly involved arrests and the taking of political prisoners. Although there was a call for a militia to be formed, a truce was called on 21 March 1839. The boundary was later settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842. | North America |
| Webster-Ashburton Treaty | | 19th | 9 August 1842 | | The Webster-Ashburton Treaty, signed on 9 August 1842, was a treaty that established the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, resolving the Aroostook War of 1838-1839. Negotiated by Daniel Webster, US Secretary of State, and Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, it was signed under the presidency of John Taylor. | North America |
| Treaty of Alliance | Franco-American Treaty | 18th | 6 February 1778 | | The Treaty of Alliance, also known as the Franco-American Treaty, was a military defence treaty signed by the United States of America and France on 6 February 1778, written in both English and French. It formalised France’s support of the American Revolutionary War against the British, in both financial and military terms. The treaty stipulated that upon victory, France would recognise the independence of the United States. | North America |
| Treaty of Amity and Commerce | | 18th | 6 February 1778 | | The Treaty of Amity and Commerce, which was signed by the United States of America and France, recognised the United States as an independent nation, thereby promoting trade between the two countries. Throughout the late 1700s, a Treaty of Amity and Commerce was by the United States presented to several countries, but the one signed with France was the first to be ratified. It was signed alongside the Treaty of Alliance. | North America |
| Model Treaty | Plan of 1776 | 18th | 17 September 1776 | | The Model Treaty was drafted in 1776 by the United States government as a template for commercial treaties with other nations to secure assistance in the American Revolutionary War against Great Britain. The treaty was approved by Congress on 17 September 1776. Future treaties such as the Treaty of Alliance (1778) and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1778),both signed by France and the United States, were heavily influenced by the Model Treaty. | North America |
| Meeker Massacre | Meeker Incident | 19th | 29 September 1879 | 29 September 1879 | The Meeker Massacre, also known as the Meeker Incident, was an uprising on the Ute Reservation. Chief Douglas and a group of other Ute Native American warriors killed Indian agent Nathan Meeker and seven other members of the White River Indian Agency in Colorado. An Indian agent was an individual authorised to interact with indigenous tribes on behalf of the US government. Meeker had previously wanted the Ute people to become farmers. When the Ute people resisted, Meeker requested military force. On the same day, the warriors killed Major Thomas Thornburgh, alongside nine of his men, in battle. With the arrival of reinforcements, the Ute warriors were sent to a reservation in Utah. | North America |
| Hawn’s Mill Massacre | Haun’s Mill Massacre | 19th | 30 October 1838 | 30 October 1838 | The Hawn’s Mill Massacre, also known as the Haun’s Mill Massacre, took place on 30 October 1838 when a company of militiamen attacked a Mormon settlement at Hawn’s Mill in Missouri. The attack was part of the escalating violence that drove Latter-day Saints out of the state of Missouri. 17 people, some of whom were children, were murdered. | North America |
| Lawrence Massacre | Quantrill’s Raid on Lawrence | 19th | 21 August 1863 | 21 August 1863 | The Lawrence Massacre, also known as Quantrill’s Raid on Lawrence, was an attack that took place during the American Civil War, killing approximately 150 unarmed men and boys in Lawrence, Kansas. A Confederate group led by William Quantrill launched the raid due to the town’s long-standing support of abolition. Lawrence was seen as the anti-slavery stronghold in Kansas and a headquarter for Unionist and Jayhawker incursions into pro-slavery Missouri. | North America |
| Battle of Sugar Point | Battle of Leech Lake | 19th | 5 October 1898 | 5 October 1898 | The Battle of Sugar Point, also known as the Battle of Leech Lake, was a conflict between the 3rd United States Infantry and members of the Pillager Band of Chippewa Native Americans. The battle took place on 5 October 1898 and was an attempt by the United States Army to capture a member of the Pillager Band known as Ojibwe Bugonaygeshig. The battle resulted in a victory for the Chippewa people and Bugonaygeshig escaped. | North America |
| Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation | Jay Treaty | 18th | 19 November 1794 | | The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, more commonly known as the Jay Treaty, was signed on 19 November 1794 by John Jay and William Grenville 1st Baron Grenville, for the United States and Great Britain, respectively. The document was officially ratified by President George Washington in 1795 and resolved many of the issues between the two states that had arisen following the Treaty of Paris of 1783. | North America |
| Louisiana Purchase Treaty | | 19th | 30 April 1803 | | The Louisiana Purchase Treaty, signed by the United States of America and France, agreed to the United States purchasing approximately 827,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River. Negotiated by James Monroe and Robert Livingston, the transaction doubled the size of the United States of America. The entire Louisiana territory, an area larger than Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Portugal combined, was bought for $15 million at the currency rate of the time, equivalent to approximately $400 million in 2023. | North America |
| Snake War | | 19th | 1864 | 1868 | The Snake War was an armed conflict between the United States and Native American nations, including Northern Paiute, Bannock, and Western Shoshone peoples. The war was fought between 1864 and 1868 and was referred to as the Snake War due the settlers’ term for the Native Americans living along the Snake River as ‘Snakes’. The fighting primarily took place in the Idaho territory, now known as the individual states of Oregon, Nevada, and California, and eventually ended in peace talks. The Native Americans who were not included in the negotiations were rounded up and taken to reservations. | North America |
| Bannock War | | 19th | June 1878 | August 1878 | The Bannock War was an armed conflict between the Shoshone-Bannock Native American tribe against the United States Army which took place between June and August 1878 in Idaho and north-eastern Oregon. The conflict began because of multiple factors, but as conditions in the Fort Hall Reservation worsened, a large group of Bannock warriors left the reservation, after which the US Army was ordered to return them to Fort Hall. The Bannock people were led by Chief Buffalo Horn, who died during the conflict, and although his death did not signify the end of the conflict, many Bannock tribe members subsequently returned to the reservation. | North America |
| Coushatta Massacre | | 19th | August 1874 | August 1874 | The Coushatta Massacre of 1874 was an attack by the White League, a white paramilitary organisation believing in white supremacy and seeking to drive out Republicans from Louisiana. Tensions arose when Thomas Floyd, an African American Union Army veteran serving in the Louisiana State Senate as a Republican, was murdered on 25 August 1874. The massacre resulted in the death of six white Republicans and approximately 20 freedmen. None of the White League members were brought to trial due to a claimed lack of evidence. | North America |
| Election Massacre of 1874 | | 19th | 3 November 1874 | 3 November 1874 | The Election Massacre of 1874 took place in Eufaula, Alabama on 3 November 1874. Elias Keils, a white candidate who supported the aims of Reconstruction, was primarily supported by Black residents of Eufaula, Alabama. At the time of the massacre, Keils tried to inform state officials about the danger Black members of the community were facing as white residents used terror and intimidation to suppress their right to vote, but federal troops refused to intervene. It is estimated that six Black people were killed, with many more injured. | North America |
| Nez Perce War | | 19th | June 1877 | October 1877 | The Nez Perce War was an armed conflict between the Nez Perce tribe of Native Americans and their allies against the United States Army. The war was fought over the Nez Perce people not wanting to relinquish their ancestral land and move to a government-authorised reservation. Eventually, the Nez Perce Native Americans surrendered, and an estimated 432 people were sent to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, to be moved to Indian Territory in Oklahoma the year after the war. | North America |
| Lattimer Massacre | | 19th | 10 September 1897 | 10 September 1897 | The Lattimer Massacre, which occurred on 10 September 1897, resulted in the death of 19 unarmed striking immigrant coal miners. Whilst protesting poor working conditions in Lattimer, Pennsylvania, around 400 striking miners were harassed by an amalgamation of law enforcement, including coal-company police, many of whom were armed with rifles. Miners were ordered to abandon the protest and when they refused, shots were fired by the police and county deputy sheriffs. | North America |
| Clayton-Bulwer Treaty | | 19th | 19 April 1850 | | The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was signed on 19 April 1850 by John M. Clayton, US Secretary of State, and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British minister to Washington D.C. The treaty was a form of compromise agreeing that both countries would not colonise Central America. It also proposed that neither country would have exclusive control over the Central American canal. | North America |
| Treaty of Ghent | | 19th | 24 December 1814 | | The Treaty of Ghent, signed on 24 December 1814 in the city of Ghent, United Netherlands, was a peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain which ended the War of 1812. Taking effect in February 1815, the treaty restored the national borders that existed before the war, thereby restoring the relationship between the two states. | North America |
| Marais des Cygnes Massacre | | 19th | 19 May 1858 | 19 May 1858 | The Marais des Cygnes Massacre took place on 19 May 1858 in the Kansas Territory. Pro-slavery men, led by Charles A. Hamilton, captured 11 unarmed free-state settlers, killing five of them. The remaining six settlers survived although wounded. Hamilton was never arrested for the massacre and later served as a colonel in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. | North America |
| Patriot War | | 19th | 8 January 1838 | 4 December 1838 | The Patriot War was fought between the Republic of Canada Hunters’ Lodge (the Patriots) and British forces allied with the United States government throughout 1838. Several battles were fought in the Great Lakes Basin in both America and Canada, to overthrow the British rule of Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). William Lyon MacKenzie led the rebellion against the British rule over Upper Canada and gained the support of Canadians and Americans alike. When the war came to an end, the British hanged 11 American sympathisers and sent many more patriots to penal colonies in Australia. | North America |
| Pottawatomie Massacre | | 19th | 24 May 1856 | 25 May 1856 | The Pottawatomie massacre was a violent reply to pro-slavery forces sacking the town of Lawrence, a town founded by anti-slavery settlers two years prior. John Brown and a group of abolitionist settlers killed five pro-slavery settlers in Franklin County near the Pottawatomie Creek, an attack which exacerbated tensions around slavery politics during the ‘Bleeding Kansas’ period. | North America |
| American Civil War | | 19th | 12 April 1861 | 26 May 1865 | The American Civil War was an armed conflict between Union and Confederate forces, more commonly referred to as the ‘the North’ and ‘the South’, respectively. The war was primarily fought due to opposing views on slavery and the expansion of the slave trade into western territories. After four years, the war ended in victory for the Union forces who opposed slavery, which resulted in the abolition of slavery, the collapse of the Confederacy, and approximately four million enslaved Black people being freed. | North America |
| Opelousas Massacre | | 19th | 28 September 1868 | 28 September 1868 | The Opelousas Massacre was instigated by white democrats unwilling to concede power in the elections of 1868. With the ratification of Louisiana’s Constitution of 1868 and the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and voting rights to all previously enslaved people following the American Civil War, tensions between white democrats and Black citizens reached breaking point. To suppress voter turnout, white supremacists hunted down, abused, and lynched African Americans. It is estimated that up to 300 Black citizens, and several dozen whites, were killed during the massacre. | North America |
| Treaty of Moultrie Creek | | 19th | 18 September 1823 | | The Treaty of Moultrie Creek was a peace treaty between the United States Government and the Seminole Native American leaders which signified an end to the First Seminole War. Signed on 18 September 1823, it resulted in the relocation of the Seminole people to a reservation of four million acres in central Florida. | North America |
| Red River War | | 19th | 1874 | 1875 | The Red River War, which took place between 1874 and 1875, was the last major conflict between the United States Army and the Southern Plains Native Americans. The United States Army launched a military campaign intending to displace and relocate several Native American groups from the Southern Plains into reservations designated by the government. The Native American groups involved in this conflict included the Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho peoples. Throughout the war, both sides engaged in approximately 20 battles, with the United States victory eventually defeating the Native American peoples. | North America |
| Medicine Lodge Treaty | | 19th | 21-28 October 1867 | | The Medicine Lodge Treaty is the joint name for three treaties between the United States government and Southern Plains Native American groups signed between 21 and 28 October 1867. Each treaty was signed by the United States and separate tribes of Native Americans. The treaty agreed upon two reservations in Native American territory being free of European-American settlement, with the government providing various basic services, such as housing. The treaty eventually collapsed as the United States government largely failed to provide what had been set out in the treaty, subsequently triggering the Red River War of 1874. | North America |
| Mountain Meadows Massacre | | 19th | 7 September 1857 | 11 September 1857 | The Mountain Meadows Massacre took place between 7 and 11 September 1857, during the Utah War. The massacre involved numerous attacks on the Baker-Fancher wagon train and was carried out by Mormon settlers in the Utah territory. The Baker-Fancher wagon train transported Arkansas emigrant families heading to Southern California. Between 120 to 140 Baker-Fancher emigrants were murdered. | North America |
| Las Cuevas War | | 19th | 20 November 1875 | 21 November 1875 | The Las Cuevas War was an armed conflict fought between a group of Texas Rangers and a small Mexican militia over two days. The conflict is an example of the tensions that built between Texas and Mexico when Texas gained independence from Mexico and became part of the United States. The war was fought because of Texan cattle being stolen and taken over the Mexican border. The war resulted in a US victory with the cattle being returned to Texas, and nearly all the Mexican fighters were killed. | North America |
| Thibodaux Massacre | | 19th | 22 November 1887 | 23 November 1887 | The Thibodaux Massacre took place following a three-week strike in which 10,000 workers protested the living and working conditions on sugar plantations in four parishes across Louisiana. Parish District Judge Taylor Beattie enforced martial law and recruited white men to form a local militia, resulting in the deaths of approximately 60 African American farm workers in a mass shooting. After the massacre, an official inquiry was not undertaken, and the militiamen went without punishment. | North America |
| Royal Proclamation of 1763 | | 18th | 7 October 1763 | | The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was a treaty issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. The treaty followed the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the Seven Years’ War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. To encourage peace with the native peoples of Canada and America, the Royal Proclamation recognised the sovereignty of the indigenous people living west of the British colonies. It set out what is known as the proclamation line, establishing a boundary between colonised and Native American lands. | North America |
| Bannock War of 1895 | Bannock Uprising | 19th | July 1895 | July 1895 | The Bannock War of 1895, also known as the Bannock Uprising, took place in July 1895 and refers to a minor conflict in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. In the 1890s, Wyoming passed a law prohibiting the killing of elk, which Bannock Native Americans had long hunted for food. This led to several arrests of Bannock hunters in July 1895 for poaching. Rumours of Native American violence against settlers propagated, but when the United States Army was called in, they found that the Bannock people were peaceful. | North America |
| Colorado Labour Wars | | 20th | 1903 | 1904 | The Colorado Labour Wars were a series of labour strikes in 1903 and 1904. The strikes occurred in seven cities across the US state of Colorado. Organised by gold and silver miners as well as mill workers represented by the Western Federation of Miners, the strikes were opposed by mine owners and businessmen who were backed by the government. As a result of the violence that ensued, martial law was imposed by the Colorado National Guard and other militia organisations. | North America |
| Ludlow Massacre | | 20th | 20 April 1914 | 20 April 1914 | The Ludlow Massacre occurred on 20 April 1914 during the Colorado Coalfield War. The massacre was an attack on striking coal miners by anti-striker groups. Soldiers from the Colorado National Guard and guards employed by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company attacked a tent colony of striking workers, which resulted in the deaths of 25 people, including 11 children. After the massacre, there was increased violence throughout the state, and many strikes turned to violent methods to protest poor working conditions. It is estimated that another 50 people died during the reaction to the Ludlow Massacre. The strike ended on 10 December 1914, almost eight months after the massacre. | North America |
| Colorado Coalfield War | | 20th | 23 September 1913 | December 1914 | The Colorado Coalfield War took place between September 1913 and December 1914 and is known as a major labour uprising in Colorado. Strikes were organised by the United Mine Workers of America against the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company to protest poor working conditions as the miners had the highest mortality rate in the USA. The Ludlow Massacre was the most violent and tragic event of the war, although violence and armed conflict continued until December 1914. The strike ended in a stalemate between the two factions. | North America |
| Illinois Coal Wars | Illinois Mine Wars | 19th | 1898 | 1900 | The Illinois Coal Wars, also known as the Illinois Mine Wars, were a series of labour disputes between 1898 and 1900. The strikes began in Virden, Illinois and resulted in the death of six security guards and seven miners, with many more injured. Although the Chicago-Virden Coal Company in this instance eventually granted a wage increase for their miners, several other strikes took place throughout Illinois during the Illinois Coal Wars that only resulted in violence between the opposing factions. | North America |
| Pana Riot | Pana Massacre | 19th | 10 April 1899 | 10 April 1899 | The Pana Riot, also known as the Pana Massacre, occurred on 10 April 1899 during the Illinois Coal Wars. Both a labour and racial conflict, it took place after a strike had been called by the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) and mine owners hired hundreds of guards and African American workers to serve as strike-breakers. This caused a great deal of tension and the deaths of eight people. | North America |
| Mexican Border War | Mexican Border Campaign | 20th | 20 November 1910 | June 1919 | The Mexican Border War, also known as the Mexican Border Campaign, was a series of armed conflicts fought between Mexico and America, which occurred along the Mexican-American border during the Mexican Revolution. As WWI was being fought in Europe, German forces also attacked America in the Mexican Border War. The war ended with an American victory at the Battle of Ciudad Juárez. | North America |
| Crazy Snake Rebellion | Smoked Meat Rebellion | 20th | March 1909 | March 1909 | The Crazy Snake Rebellion, also known as the Smoked Meat Rebellion, was a minor armed conflict between the Creek Native American people and American settlers. Chitto Harjo, which loosely translates as Crazy Snake in English, led the Creek people. In March 1909, an ally of the Creek people was accused of stealing a piece of smoked meat from a local white farmer, and American law enforcement attempted to arrest the accused. When the Creek people resisted the local county authority, it resulted in two skirmishes. Three people died, and many African Americans were arrested. | North America |
| Paint Creek-Cabin Creek Strike | Paint Creek Mine War | 20th | 18 April 1912 | July 1913 | The Paint Creek-Cabin Creek Strike, also known as the Paint Creek Mine War, was a conflict between striking coal miners and coal operators in West Virginia. The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) called for a strike on 18 April 1912, which lasted until July 1913. Throughout the strike, there were instances of violence, and martial law was imposed numerous times. The 13-month-long struggle resulted in the death of 12 mining strikers and 13 coal company men. When the strike ended in July 1913, little changed for the miners in West Virginia, but the conflict sparked more strikes across the United States. | North America |
| Bluff War | Posey War of 1915 | 20th | March 1914 | March 1915 | The Bluff War, also known as the Posey War of 1915, was an armed conflict between the United States and Ute and Paiute Native Americans. The Native American people were led by two warriors called Polk and Posey. Several Utes accused Tse-ne-gat, also known as Everett Hatch, who was the son of the Paiute Chief Narraguinnep, Polk, of killing a shepherd, Juan Chacon. As a result, numerous skirmishes between the Native Americans and local law enforcement occurred throughout Utah. The final conflict occurred in Bluff City and Tse-ne-gat later surrendered. He was put on trial in Denver, but eventually returned to his people. | North America |
| Posey War | Last Indian Uprising | 20th | 20 March 1923 | 23 March 1923 | The Posey War, also known as the Last Indian Uprising, was an armed conflict between white settlers and Ute and Paiute Native Americans led by Chief Posey. Multiple conflicts had occurred in the area between the same factions, and this particular conflict was the result of two members of Posey’s people being arrested for supposedly killing livestock. The sheriff of San Juan County issued an order for Posey’s group to be captured and imprisoned. The Native Americans who were not captured fought back against the sheriff and the white settlers. Within a few weeks, Chief Posey was killed, and the fighting stopped. | North America |
| Women’s Day Massacre | | 20th | 19 June 1937 | 19 June 1937 | The Women’s Day Massacre took place on 19 June 1937 in Youngstown, Ohio. In previous years there had been conflicts between the Steel Workers Organising Committee (SWOC) and the steel companies throughout Ohio. The SWOC women’s auxiliary organised a ‘Women’s Day’ on the picket line. Although SWOC encouraged women to strike alongside the men, the Youngstown police force, particularly police captain Charley Richmond, held the opposing view. To remove women from the picket line, law enforcement used tear gas and eventually fired into the crowd of protestors. The violence resulted in the deaths of 16 people and wounded approximately 200. | North America |
| Treaty of Oregon | | 19th | 15 June 1846 | | The Treaty of Oregon was signed on 15 June 1846 by Great Britain and the United States of America. It signalled the end of 28 years of joint occupancy of the Pacific Northwest. It was apparent that the Northwest was becoming increasingly American, owing to migration being encouraged through the Oregon Trail. The treaty established the so-called 49th parallel north, a circle of latitude that is 49 degrees north of the equator, as the new border between the countries, resulting in British possession of Vancouver Island. The treaty was ratified on 14 August 1848 by the American Congress. | North America |
| Battle of the Belly River | | 19th | 25 October 1870 | 25 October 1870 | The Battle of the Belly River took place on 25 October 1870 between the Cree and Blackfoot Native American peoples. This battle is known as the last armed conflict between indigenous groups in Canada. Taking advantage of a Blackfoot group weakened after a smallpox outbreak, Cree warriors attempted to attack the Blackfoot camp. Eventually, Blackfoot warriors took the high ground and forced Cree warriors to retreat. Approximately 300 Cree were killed, while only 40 Blackfoot warriors died. | North America |
| Treaty of 1818 | London Convention | 19th | 20 October 1818 | 1842 | The Treaty of 1818, also known as the London Convention, is a treaty between Great Britain and the United States of America which resolved some of the continuing border issues between the two countries. The treaty secured fishing rights along the province of Newfoundland and Labrador for the US and established the 49th parallel as the border between British colonies and the US, as later reaffirmed in the Treaty of Oregon Treaty, 1846. The Treaty of 1818 came into effect in 1819 but was revised in 1842. | North America |
| Treaty of New Echota | | 19th | 29 December 1835 | | The Treaty of New Echota was signed by United States of America government officials and representatives from a minority Cherokee faction known as the Treaty Party. Signed on 29 December 1835 in New Echota, Georgia, it led to the removal of Cherokees from their south-eastern territories. As a result, the Treaty Party received approximately $5 million in exchange for seven million acres of ancestral land and were moved to Native American territory west of the Mississippi River. Although many Cherokee members opposed the treaty, it was ratified in March 1836. | North America |
| Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty | Elgin-Marcy Treaty | 19th | 1854 | March 1866 | The Reciprocity Treaty, also known as the Elgin-Marcy Treaty, was a trade treaty signed by the United States of America and the United Kingdom. The treaty was signed in 1854 and established more favourable trading terms for the import and export of raw materials between North American and British North American colonies. The name Elgin-Marcy relates to Lord Elgin and W. L. Marcy who signed the treaty. Several economic and political factors after the American Civil War led to the abolition of the treaty in March 1866. | North America |
| Treaty of Detroit | | 19th | 17 November 1807 | | The Treaty of Detroit was signed on 17 November 1807 by the United States of America and the Ottawa, Chippewa, Wyandot and Potawatomi nations of Native Americans. The treaty led to Native American tribes ceding approximately eight million acres of land to the United States government. As recompense, the government paid them a small sum of money and forced them to move from their lands. The treaty was amongst those in which the United States government designated reservations for Native Americans to live on. | North America |
| Treaty of Saginaw | Treaty with the Chippewa | 19th | 24 September 1819 | | The Treaty of Saginaw, also known as the Treaty with the Chippewa, was signed on 24 September 1819 by the United States of America and the Ojibwe (called Ojibwe in Canada and Chippewa in the US),Ottawa, and Potawatomi tribes. The treaty led to the Native American tribes ceding six million acres to the United States government, leaving the Ojibwe with reserved sections of land for themselves and the right to continue living on the territory. | North America |
| Treaty of Washington of 1871 | | 19th | 8 May 1871 | | The Treaty of Washington of 1871 was signed and ratified by the United Kingdom and the United States. The treaty settled several disputes between the countries, including the Alabama Claims, which were a series of claims for damages by the US government against the United Kingdom for the assistance given to the Confederate cause during the American Civil War. Although the treaty was signed in the name of the British Empire, the newly formed Dominion of Canada was involved in settling issues that affected Canada directly. | North America |
| Treaty of Washington of 1836 | Treaty with the Ottawa | 19th | 28 March 1836 | | The Treaty of Washington, also known as the Treaty with the Ottawa, was signed by the United States of America and the Ottawa and Chippewa Native American peoples on 28 March 1836. The treaty led to the Ottawa and Chippewa peoples ceding approximately 13 million acres of land to the US government. In a similar way to previous treaties between the US government and Native Americans based in Michigan, tribes would be removed from the land they had given up and placed on reservations designated by the government. | North America |
| Everett Massacre | Bloody Sunday | 20th | 5 November 1916 | 5 November 1916 | The Everett Massacre, also known as Bloody Sunday, was an armed conflict in Everett, Washington between local authorities and members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) union. On 5 November 1916, 300 IWW members marched towards the docks in protest of poor working conditions and low wages and in support of the shingle weavers’ strike. At the docks, approximately 200 citizen deputies under the authority of County Sheriff McRae stood ready. When the two groups met, gunfire began, resulting in the deaths of five IWW members, and two citizen deputies, and with many more wounded. | North America |
| Battle of Bear Valley | | 20th | 9 January 1918 | 9 January 1918 | The Battle of Bear Valley was an armed conflict between a group of Yaqui Native Americans and a detachment from the United States Army. On 8 January 1918, Phillip C. Clarke, a local cattleman and mercantile owner, rode to the United States Army camp to inform Captain Ryder that one of his cows had been killed. It was assumed that Yaqui people had killed the cow, and as the 10th Cavalry Regiment had detected about 30 armed Yaquis in Bear Valley, Ryder strengthened his defences. When fighting broke out the following day, it resulted in the death of one Yaqui and the imprisonment of the remaining warriors. | North America |
| Centralia Massacre | Armistice Day Riot | 20th | 11 November 1919 | 11 November 1919 | The Centralia Tragedy, also known as the Armistice Day Riot, was a massacre that took place in Centralia, Washington, on 11 November 1919. During a parade celebrating the first anniversary of Armistice Day, a conflict between the American Legion, an organisation for war veterans, and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW),escalated. IWW efforts to open a hall for local members in Centralia had been opposed by the IWW, and on this day, the American Legion marched to the hall. The confrontation led to six deaths in total, including the lynching of Wesley Everest, an IWW logger. | North America |
| Herrin Massacre | | 20th | 21 June 1922 | 22 June 1922 | The Herrin Massacre took place between the 21 and 22 June 1922 in the coal mining area of Herrin, Illinois during a nationwide strike organised by the United Mineworkers of America (UMWA). Initially, the owner of the mine agreed to observe the strike but reneged and hired other non-union workers to mine the coal. As a response to the owner breaking his agreement, the striking union members shot at the hired workers and the armed guards. Over the two days of violence, it is estimated that 21 people died across both factions, with many more injured. | North America |
| Battle of Kelley Creek | Last Massacre | 20th | 25 February 1911 | February 1911 | The Battle of Kelley Creek, also known as the Last Massacre, took place between a Shoshone band of Native Americans and a group of law enforcement posse in Nevada. In January 1911, the Shoshone band was accused of killing four cattlemen. As a result, the band was tracked by a group of policemen and other citizens, and they were eventually found in a region called Kelley Creek. The battle resulted in the deaths of eight Shoshone people and one member of the law enforcement posse. | North America |
| Battle of Matewan | Matewan Massacre | 21st | 19 May 1920 | 19 May 1920 | The Battle of Matewan, also known as the Matewan Massacre, took place on 19 May 1920 in Matewan, West Virginia. The battle was fought by local coal miners and their allies, including the town mayor and sheriff, against the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency. The Baldwin-Felts Detective Company arrived in Matewan to evict miners and their families from the houses provided by Stone Mountain Coal Company after the miners had either joined the United Mine Workers of America Union (UMWA) or refused to sign yellow-dog contracts that meant they could never join a union. A total of ten men died, including seven detectives, two miners, and the mayor. | North America |
| Battle of Blair Mountain | | 21st | 25 August 1921 | 2 September 1921 | The Battle of Blair Mountain took place between 25 August and 2 September 1921 in West Virginia. One of the largest civil uprisings in United States history, it saw 10,000 armed coal miners march in protest of low wages and poor working and housing conditions. The striking miners faced approximately 3,000 lawmen and strike-breakers, which resulted in military intervention, and the subsequent surrender of the miners. The exact number of deaths is unknown, but it is estimated that casualties ranged from 20 to 100 people. | North America |
| Treaty of Cahuenga | Capitulation of Cahuenga | 19th | 13 January 1847 | | The Treaty of Cahuenga, also known as the Capitulation of Cahuenga, was a treaty signed on 13 January 1847 which ended the hostilities between Californios and the United States Army during the Mexican-American War. John C. Fremont signed on behalf of the United States, and one year after the signing, California was ceded to the United States of America. | North America |
| Anderson-Gual Treaty | | 19th | 3 October 1824 | 1837 | The Anderson-Gual Treaty was signed by the United States of America and Gran Colombia. Signed on 3 October 1824, it was the first bilateral treaty between the United States of America and another American country. It was signed by the diplomat Richard Clough Anderson and Pedro Gual Escandon, the Gran Colombian minister. It was ratified in May 1925 by both countries, and it was agreed that it would expire after 12 years. The treaty ensured peaceful and favourable trade between the two nations. | North America |
| Treaty of Limits | | 19th | 12 January 1828 | 1846 | The Treaty of Limits was a treaty signed by the United States of America and Mexico on 12 January 1828. The treaty confirmed the borders of the two nations, which were initially established in the Treaty of Adams-Onis of 1819 between Spain and the United States of America. The treaty was amended twice in the 1830s and subsequently replaced in 1846 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the Mexican-American War, which established a new border. | North America |
| Columbine Mine Massacre | | 20th | 21 November 1927 | 21 November 1927 | The Columbine Mine Massacre occurred on 21 November 1927 in Serene, Colorado. A large crowd, between 200 and 600 people, were on strike in protest of poor working conditions for the miners at the Columbine mine. A fight broke out between the striking coal miners and the Colorado state militia, who were allied with the newly constituted Colorado State Police. Law enforcement fired into the crowd, resulting in the death of six striking miners and the wounding of 20 others. | North America |
| Harlan County War | Bloody Harlan | 20th | 1931 | 1939 | The Harlan County War, also known as Bloody Harlan, was a series of armed conflicts between striking coal union members against coal companies throughout Harlan County, Kentucky. Coal miners were primarily striking over poor and unsafe working conditions and low wages. Eventually, in 1939, Harlan coal companies signed on with the United Mine Workers Union (UMWA). | North America |
| Pemmican War | | 19th | 1812 | 1821 | The Pemmican War was a series of armed conflicts between Hudson’s Bay Company and the North West Company across present-day Canadian territory. It took place following the establishment of the Red River Colony in 1812 by Lord Selkirk. In mid-winter 1814, due to famine, the Red River Colony issued the Pemmican Proclamation to stop the export of pemmican to North West Company forts, retaining it for Hudson’s Bay Company settlers. The war eventually resulted in the two companies merging. | North America |
| Shiners’ War | | 19th | 1835 | 1845 | The Shiners’ War was a series of armed conflicts between French Canadians and Irish-Catholic immigrants in Bytown, present-day Ottawa, Canada. The war takes its name from the group of Irish men known as Shiners who attacked timber operations in the region. There were several attempts by citizens of Bytown to stop the violence, but eventually, in 1837, troops were deployed by the government. Skirmishes continued until 1845, only ending after the death of the Irish leader, Peter Aylen. | North America |
| McGowan’s War | | 19th | Autumn 1858 | January 1859 | McGowan’s War took place from the autumn of 1858 until January 1859 in Yale, British Columbia and was a bloodless conflict. The conflict was a clash between two opposing mining communities led by their magistrates, in the Fraser Canyon goldfields. British soldiers and sailors were deployed to bring order to the town as British Columbia was still under colonial rule. The conflict also involved campaigning to drive out the indigenous people of Fraser Canyon due to the increased mining activity. | North America |
| Pig War | | 19th | 15 June 1859 | October 1959 | The Pig War was an armed conflict between the United States of America and Great Britain over the British-US border in the San Juan Islands, located between Vancouver Island and the state of Washington where both states had a significant presence. The conflict began on 15 June 1959 when a pig belonging to a British employee of the Hudson’s Bay Company walked onto the farming land of an American settler, Lyman Cutler, who shot the pig. There was military support on both sides until October 1859. In 1872, the San Juan Islands fell under American control. | North America |
| Chilcotin Uprising | Bute Inlet Massacre | 19th | April 1864 | April 1864 | The Chilcotin Uprising, also known as the Bute Inlet Massacre, was a confrontation that took place in April 1864 between members of the Tsilhqot'in (Chilcotin) people and white workmen. After work on a road being built from Bute Inlet to the interior region of British Columbia had entered Chilcotin Indian territory without permission, Chilcotin warriors retaliated, killing 14 road workers. Chilcotin warriors and chiefs were subsequently imprisoned and put on trial. In 2014, the British Columbia government exonerated the Chilcotin leaders. | North America |
| Fenian Raids | | 19th | April 1866 | October 1871 | The Fenian Raids were a series of armed attacks carried out by an Irish republican organisation called the Fenian Brotherhood. Based in the United States of America, the Fenian Brotherhood attacked military fortifications, customs posts, and other infrastructures in Canada. The attacks began in the Spring of 1866 and ended in October 1871, when the Fenians learned that the U.S. Army had arrested John O’Neill, a key figure in the Fenian Brotherhood organisation. The raids stemmed from the aim to invade Canada, thus exchanging it with Great Britain for Irish independence. With the arrest of O’Neill in 1871, this plan never came to fruition. | North America |
| Cypress Hills Massacre | | 19th | 1 June 1873 | 1 June 1873 | The Cypress Hills Massacre took place on 1 June 1873 in the Cypress Hills region of the North-West Territories of Canada, now known as Saskatchewan. A group of American bison and wolf hunters claimed that a horse had been stolen by the Assiniboine people, and a fight ensued. Approximately 20 Assiniboine Native Americans died. The massacre is credited by many as prompting the United States government’s decision to create the North-West Mounted Police to help patrol the region. | North America |
| Red River Rebellion | Red River Resistance | 19th | 1869 | 1870 | The Red River Rebellion, also known as the Red River Resistance, took place from 1869 to 1870 in the Red River Colony. The uprising took place as a response to the transfer of the vast territory of Rupert’s Land to the new Dominion of Canada. The farmers and hunters of the colony, many of them Métis, occupied a corner of the territory and feared for their culture and land rights. The rebellion led to the formation of the province of Manitoba. | North America |
| Lower Canada Rebellion | Patriots’ War | 19th | November 1837 | November 1838 | The Lower Canada Rebellion, also known as the Patriots’ War, began in November 1837 between the Patriots (French-Canadian nationalists) and British colonial forces in Canada. In response to the rebellion, British forces invoked emergency legislation and martial law. The rebellion also influenced the Upper Canada Rebellion, which started a month later, and both were ongoing for a year. The Lower and Upper Canada Rebellions led to a total of 325 deaths, all of whom were Patriots except 27 British soldiers. | North America |
| Upper Canada Rebellion | | 19th | December 1837 | December 1838 | The Upper Canada Rebellion began in December 1837, following the Lower Canada Rebellion that had started a month earlier. The rebellion was led by William Lyon Mackenzie, who challenged the land grants that favoured settlers from Britain. After a few attempts to fight the British colonial forces, most rebels fled to the United States. The Lower and Upper Canada Rebellions led to a total of 325 deaths. Some died in battle, others were rebels captured and executed by the government. A few years after the rebellion, both colonies were united as the Province of Canada in 1841. | North America |
| United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland | | 19th | 24 April 1800 | 24 April 1800 | The United Irish Uprising in Newfoundland was a mutiny organised by Irish soldiers in the British army garrison based in St. John’s, Newfoundland. With a plot to take over the town and aspirations to control the colony, the Irish soldiers deserted their duties on 24 April 1800. The soldiers were seen deserting their posts, and the majority were captured, resulting in eight men being hanged and several being imprisoned. | North America |
| Battle of Ballantyne Pier | | 20th | 18 June 1935 | 18 June 1935 | The Battle of Ballantyne Pier took place on 18 June 1935 when approximately 1,000 striking dockers and longshoremen marched to the entrance of Ballantyne Pier in Vancouver, British Columbia. Striking workers were not allowed entry to the pier to discuss working conditions and wages, and many police were called to the scene. The police attacked the protestors, resulting in 28 men being hospitalised and 24 arrests. Despite the fatalities, the strike lasted until December 1935. | North America |
| Battle of Boca Teacapan | | 19th | 17 June 1870 | 17 June 1870 | The Battle of Boca Teacapan took place on 17 June 1870 as a result of a Mexican pirate ship attacking other ships in the Pacific Ocean. The United States Navy pursued the ship, which sparked the battle. Eight American sailors were wounded, while the casualties of the pirates are unknown. | North America |
| Sheep Wars | Sheep and Cattle War | 19th, 20th | circa 1870 | 1920 | The Sheep Wars, also known as the Sheep and Cattle War, were a series of armed conflicts between cattlemen and sheepherders throughout Texas and the western United States over grazing lands. Approximately 120 skirmishes occurred, and it is estimated that 54 men were killed and some 50,000 to 100,000 sheep were slaughtered. | North America |
| Sheepeater Indian War | | 19th | 1879 | 1879 | The Sheepeater Indian War took place over several months in 1879 between Western Shoshone and Bannock Native Americans, known as Sheepeaters due to their proficiency in hunting Rocky Mountain sheep, and the United States Army. Numerous murders of ranchers and miners were suspected to have been committed by the so-called Sheepeaters. Consequently, the First Cavalry was sent in search of the native band in central Idaho. After several skirmishes, the Shoshone surrendered in late September 1879. | North America |
| Acadian Civil War | | 17th | 1640 | 1645 | The Acadian Civil War was a series of armed conflicts fought between two competing governors of Acadia, Charles de Sainte-Étienne de La Tour and Charles de Menou d’Aulnay, whose administrations overlapped. In April 1645, d’Aulnay got word that La Tour had left his fort to go to Boston. He sailed across the Bay of Fundy and lay siege. La Tour’s wife Françoise-Marie resisted, but after bombardments, she was forced to watch as her men were strangled to death. She subsequently died. La Tour did not hear what had happened until late June. Later, in 1650, d’Aulnay died when his canoe overturned, and La Tour went to France to restore his authority in Acadia. He also married d’Aulnay’s widow and adopted his eight children. | North America |
| Two Row Wampum Treaty | Gaswéñdah Treaty | 17th | 1613 | | The Two Row Wampum Treaty, also known as the Gaswéñdah Treaty, is a treaty between the Dutch and the Iroquois and Mohawk Native American peoples. It is one of the oldest treaties between a North American indigenous people and European immigrants. The treaty was signed in 1613 and agreed upon a mutual commitment to peace. | North America |
| Great Peace of Montreal Treaty | | 18th | 4 August 1701 | | The Great Peace of Montreal was a peace treaty between France and the First Nations. It was signed on 4 August 1701 by the delegates of the First Nations and Louis-Hector de Calliere, who signed on behalf of King Louis XIV of France. The treaty ended the wars between the native peoples, consolidated hunting territories, and slowed British expansion in Canada. The treaty allowed First Nations people to trade freely in Montreal and the Quebec province. | North America |
| Rush-Bagot Treaty | Rush-Bagot Pact | 19th | April 1817 | | The Rush-Bagot Treaty, also known as the Rush-Bagot Pact, was signed in April 1817 by Richard Rush, acting US Secretary of State, and Charles Bagot, British minister to the US. The treaty agreed on limiting the number of naval forces on the Great Lakes, in light of the War of 1812. The treaty was ratified in 1818 and remains in force to this day. | North America |
| Migratory Bird Treaty Act | | 20th | 1918 | 2004 | The Migratory Bird Treaty Act was signed in 1918 by the United States of America and Great Britain (on behalf of Canada). The treaty was established to prevent the poaching of migratory birds, which previously caused conflict among poachers and hunters due to the overhunting of certain species. After the treaty was ratified, it became a federal crime to harm birds in any way, including taking feathers or other parts. This treaty was reformed in 2004 to only include birds native to the United States and US territories. | North America |
| Lincoln County War | | 19th | 18 February 1878 | 18 February 1879 | The Lincoln County War was an armed conflict between opposing factions competing for dry goods and cattle in Lincoln County, New Mexico. The two factions were general store owners, led by J.J. Dolan and L.G. Murphy against ranchers, led by John Chisum and Alexander McSween. The murder of Englishman John Tunstall led more people to rally around Chisum and McSween, renamed as the Regulators. Several skirmishes between the factions lasted for a year between the 18th February 1878 and 18th February 1879. The most infamous figure from this conflict was William Bonney, known as Billy the Kid. | North America |
| Hatfield-McCoy Feud | Hatfield-McCoy Conflict | 19th | Early 1860s | Early 1890s | The Hatfield-McCoy Feud, also known as the Hatfield-McCoy Conflict, was an armed conflict between two rival families in the West Virginia-Kentucky region. Violent hostilities began in the 1860s and lasted until the 1890s, with discrepancies in the exact dates. It is believed that the main cause of the conflict was land disputes, and opposing loyalties during the American Civil War, however, the origins are not fully confirmed. Throughout the feud, more than 12 people from the two families were killed and approximately 10 were wounded. | North America |
| Homestead Strike | Homestead Riot | 19th | 6 July 1892 | 12 July 1892 | The Homestead Strike, also known as the Homestead Riot, was a violent conflict between the Carnegie Steel Company and many of its workers. Tensions grew over a labour dispute in the town of Homestead, Pennsylvania. In June and early July 1892, there were numerous wage cuts and workers were dismissed. The violence that ensued resulted in the death of three Pinkerton agents and seven workers. Workers eventually took control of the steel mill, only to be forced out by the National Guard, thus ending the strike and violence. | North America |
| Tulsa Race Massacre | Black Wall Street Massacre | 20th | 31 May 1921 | 1 June 1921 | The Tulsa Race Massacre, also known as the Black Wall Street massacre, took place in Tulsa, Oklahoma over multiple factors of tension between white and black residents of Tulsa’s Greenwood District. The massacre was a result of a white supremacist terrorist group looting and burning the properties of black residents. Martial law was declared, and the National Guard troops arrived in the region to control the violence. More than 800 people were treated for injuries and historians now believe approximately 300 people died as a result. | North America |
| Battle of Alcatraz | | 20th | 2 May 1946 | 4 May 1946 | The Battle of Alcatraz was an armed conflict between escaped inmates and the federal prison staff of the Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary. The conflict arose when convicts Bernard Coy and Joseph Cretzer broke out of their cells with several other inmates. During the escape attempt, the inmates seized firearms and several prison officers were taken hostage. Eventually, prison officers were aided by US Marines and police officers, resulting in the deaths of two correctional officers and three inmates. | North America |
| Battle of Athens | McMinn County War | 20th | 1 August 1946 | 2 August 1946 | The Battle of Athens, also known as the McMinn County War, was a rebellion led by the citizens of Athens and Etowah, Tennessee against the local government, who were accused of police brutality and political corruption. The tensions were borne out of the introduction of Paul Cantrell as sheriff of McMinn County in 1936. During his ten-year tenure, Cantrell engaged in electoral fraud and was responsible for several acts which intimidated voters and bolstered his political career. The uprising resulted in the McMinn County government being disbanded and replaced. | North America |
| Watts Riots | Watts Rebellion | 20th | 11 August 1965 | 16 August 1965 | The Watts Riots, also known as the Watts Rebellion, were a series of violent confrontations which took place in the deeply impoverished Watts neighbourhood of Los Angeles, between predominantly African American communities and the Los Angeles police force. The conflict began with the arrest of an African American man, Marquette Frye, by Lee W. Minikus, a white officer. Violence, looting, and rioting lasted for six days and resulted in 34 deaths and over a thousand injured. The Watts Riots is now considered the largest and costliest urban rebellion of the Civil Rights era. | North America |
| Mexican Revolution | | 20th | 1910 | 1920 | The Mexican Revolution consisted of several regional armed conflicts among different political factions in Mexico. The initial cause of the revolution began with the people’s rising discontent with the elitist politics and the decades-long regime of President Porfirio Diaz. The ten-year revolution was a long and bloody struggle amongst different political regimes with constantly shifting alliances. When the Mexican Constitution of 1917 was legitimised, large-scale conflicts decreased, and the revolution’s final years saw only minor skirmishes among opposing groups. | North America |
| Mexican War of Independence | | 19th | 16 September 1810 | 24 August 1821 | The Mexican War of Independence was an armed political conflict between New Spain (present-day Mexico) and the Spanish colonial government. Mexican-born Spaniards (criollo people),Mestizos and Amerindians wanted their independence from Spain and fought the local Spanish government for 11 years, resulting in a death toll of approximately half a million people. The war ended when the Treaty of Córdoba was signed on the 24th of August 1821, declaring New Spain as the Mexican Empire. | North America |
| Treaty of Córdoba | | 19th | 24 August 1821 | | The Treaty of Córdoba was signed on the 24th of August 1821 by representatives of Spain and newly independent Mexico. Although the treaty recognised Mexican independence from Spain and ended the Mexican War of Independence, it wouldn’t be until the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty in 1836 that Mexico would be recognised as a peaceful trade partner for Spain. | North America |
| Santa María–Calatrava Treaty | | 19th | 29 December 1836 | | The Santa María-Calavera Treaty was signed on the 29th of December 1836 by Mexico and Spain to acknowledge Mexican independence from the Spanish colonial government and to encourage peace and friendship between Mexico and Spain. This treaty consolidated the relationship between Mexico and Spain and ended the tensions between both nations that lingered from the Mexican War of Independence, which began in 1810. | North America |
| 1821 Treaty of Chicago | | 19th | 29 August 1821 | | The 1821 Treaty of Chicago was the first of two treaties signed by the United States of America and representatives of the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi (Council of Three Fires) Native American people. Similar to the Treaty of Detroit (1807),the treaty ceded approximately five million acres of land to the United States government. In doing so, many Native American people were forced to live on reservations throughout the state of Michigan. | North America |
| 1833 Treaty of Chicago | | 19th | 26 September 1833 | | The 1833 Treaty of Chicago was the second of two treaties signed by the United States of America and representatives of the Chippewa, Odawa, and Potowatomi Native American people. The treaty granted all land west of Lake Michigan to Lake Winnebago in modern-day Wisconsin to the United States government. In return, the treaty promised various cash payments and tracts of land west of the Mississippi River. | North America |
| Cristero War | La Cristiada | 20th | 1 August 1926 | 21 June 1929 | The Cristero War, also known as La Cristiada, was a conflict in north-western Mexico between the Cristeros (‘Soldiers of Christ’) and the Mexican army, supported by the United States of America. The conflict between the Catholic Church and the anti-clerical government in Mexico was borne out of the implementation of secularist and anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution, which limited the power of the church. In total, the death toll is estimated at 90,000 people. | North America |
| Chiapas Conflict | | 20th, 21st | 1994 | late 2010s | The Chiapas Conflict was a series of armed uprisings and ensuing tensions between the Zapatista Army of National Liberation against the Mexican federal government, supported by the United States. Indigenous peoples and subsistence farmers in Chiapas, the poorest state in Mexico, joined forces with the Zapatista Army and took control of several towns to demand greater rights for Mexico's indigenous people. The conflict resulted in an armistice. | North America |
| Mexico-Guatemala Conflict | | 20th | 1958 (exact date debated) | 15 September 1959 | The Mexico-Guatemala Conflict was an armed conflict between Mexico and Guatemala which stemmed from a lack of clear legislation on fishing rights. This resulted in Mexican fishing boats being fired upon by the Guatemalan Air Force on suspicion of piracy and arms trafficking. The conflict ended in a ceasefire and the Guatemalan government agreed to compensate the bereaved and injured. | North America |
| Tlatelolco Massacre | | 20th | 2 October 1968 | 2 October 1968 | The Tlatelolco Massacre took place on the 2nd of October 1968 at the Plaza de las Tres Culturas (in the Tlatelolco section of Mexico City) when Mexican Armed Forces opened fire on a group of unarmed civilians protesting the Olympic Games that were to take place that October. The Mexican media and government claimed that the Armed Forces were provoked by protesters shooting at them, but government documents made public in 2000 suggest that snipers had been employed by the government. The massacre caused hundreds of deaths, though the exact number is still disputed. | North America |
| Bancroft Treaties | Naturalisation Conventions | 19th, 20th | 1868 | 1937 | The Bancroft Treaties, also known as the Naturalisation Conventions, were a series of agreements between the United States and various other countries. There were 25 agreements in total which aimed to regulate the citizenship of people who emigrated from one country to another. The treaties are named after George Bancroft, a historian and diplomat who negotiated the first treaty. | North America |
| 1871 Treaty of Washington | | 19th | 8 May 1871 | | The 1871 Treaty of Washington was a treaty signed by the United States of America and the United Kingdom to resolve numerous issues between the two nations, predominantly focusing on illegal fishing and the shipping industry during the American Civil War. The treaty resulted in the United Kingdom paying $15.5 million to the US, which restored friendly relations between the two nations. | North America |
| 1896 Treaty of Paris | | 19th | 10 December 1898 | | The Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain, commonly known as the 1898 Treaty of Paris, was signed by Spain and the United States to end the Spanish-American War and Spain’s colonisation of the Philippines. The treaty resulted in Spain ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States of America. In return for the cession of the Philippines, the US paid Spain a compensation of $20 million. | North America |
| Spanish-American War | | 19th | 21 April 1898 | 17 July 1898 | The Spanish-American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Spain, which took place in Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The war resulted in victory for the United States, thus ending Spanish colonial rule in North America. The 1898 Treaty of Paris agreed the terms of the end of the war with Spain and ceded the aforementioned countries to the USA. | North America |
| Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903) | Platt Amendment | 20th | 22 May 1903 | 1934 | The 1903 Cuban-American Treaty of Relations, also known as the Platt Amendment, was signed by the United States and the Republic of Cuba on the 22nd of May 1903 to enable the United States’ involvement in Cuban affairs - both international and domestic - to further protect Cuba’s independence. Additionally, the treaty allowed the US to buy and lease land in Cuba to establish naval bases, including Guantanamo Bay. The treaty expired in 1934 with the rise of Cuban nationalism. | North America |
| Treaty of the Danish West Indies | | 20th | 4 August 1916 | | The Treaty of the Danish West Indies, officially the Convention between the United States and Denmark for the cession of the Danish West Indies, was signed by the United States and Denmark on the 4th of August 1916. The treaty transferred sovereignty of the Virgin Islands in the Danish West Indies from Denmark to the United States. In exchange, the United States paid Denmark the equivalent of $25 million in gold. The Danish West Indies became known as the United States Virgin Islands. | North America |
| Hay-Quesada Treaty | Isle of Pines Treaty | 20th | 2 March 1904 | | The Hay-Quesada Treaty, also known as the Isle of Pines Treaty, was signed on the 2nd of March 1904 by the United States of America and the Republic of Cuba. However, the treaty was not ratified by either country until the 13th of March 1925. It was signed by Secretary of State John Hay on behalf of the USA, and Minister Gonzalo de Quesada representing the Republic of Cuba. The treaty ensured the favourable treatment of Americans on the Isle of Pines, along the south coast of Cuba. | North America |
| Bermuda Agreement | | 20th | February 1946 | 1977 | The Bermuda Agreement (formally the Agreement between the government of the United Kingdom and the government of the United States relating to Air Services between their respective Territories) was signed in February 1946 by the United States of America and the United Kingdom. The treaty regulated civil air transport between the two nations but was later replaced by the Bermuda II Agreement signed in 1977. | North America |
| Treaty of Manila of 1946 | Treaty of General Relations | 20th | 4 July 1946 | | The Treaty of Manila of 1946, also known as the Treaty of General Relations, was signed on the 4th of July 1946 by the United States and the Republic of the Philippines. The treaty recognised the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and became effective on the 22nd of October 1946. | North America |
| Alaska Purchase Treaty | | 19th | 30 March 1867 | | The Alaska Purchase Treaty was signed by Russia and the United States on the 30th of March 1867 to formally transfer Alaska from Russia to the United States. In exchange, the United States paid $7.2 million for the territory, for approximately 600,000 square miles. The treaty was signed by US Secretary of State William H. Seward and Russian minister to the US, Eduard de Stoeckl. | North America |
| Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty | | 20th | 18 November 1903 | 7 September 1977 | The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed by Panama and the United States of America on the 18th of November 1903 to establish the Panama Canal Zone and the construction terms for the Panama Canal. The agreement also granted exclusive rights to the United States to use the canal and Isthmus of Panama. This was agreed on confirmation of the US financially reimbursing Panama and protecting the newly formed republic. | North America |
| Neutrality Treaty | | 20th | 7 September 1977 | | The Treaty Concerning the Permanent Neutrality and Operation of the Panama Canal, also known as the Neutrality Treaty, was signed on the 7th of September 1977 by Panama and the United States of America. The treaty determined that the United States would continue to hold the right to defend the Panama Canal should a threat arise. The Neutrality Treaty is also referred to more broadly as part the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, an event which saw the signing of two treaties regarding the Panama Canal, which replaced the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903. | North America |
| Panama Canal Treaty of 1977 | | 20th | 7 September 1977 | | The Panama Canal Treaty was signed on the 7th of September 1977 by Panama and the United States of America. The treaty determined that the Panama Canal Zone would no longer exist as of the 1st of October 1979, and that the Panama Canal would be under Panamanian control as of the 31st of December 1999. The Panama Canal Treaty is also referred to more broadly as part the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, an event which saw the signing of two treaties regarding the Panama Canal, which replaced the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903. | North America |
| North Atlantic Treaty | Washington Treaty | 20th | 4 April 1949 | | The North Atlantic Treaty, also referred to as the Washington Treaty, was signed by the United States and 30 other nations on the 4th of April 1949 in Washington D.C. The treaty was a military alliance which formed the basis of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Originally formed as a counter measure to Soviet armies stationed in Eastern Europe, the United States and many Western European nations joined the military alliance by signing the treaty. | North America |
| Pima Revolt | O'odham Uprising | 18th | November 1751 | 1752 | The Pima Revolt, also known as the Pima Outbreak and the O’odham Uprising, began in November 1751 because of O’odham Native American rebels attacking Spanish missions and settlements in Spanish Arizona due to growing resentment of colonial control. The rebellion failed, with most deaths on the O’odham side of the conflict. | North America |
| Stony Monday Riot | | 19th | 17 September 1849 | 19 September 1849 | The Stony Monday Riot took place on the 17th of September 1849 in Bytown (now Ottawa),Ontario. The Rebellion Losses Bill, established in April 1849, compensated those for the losses suffered in the Rebellions of 1837 to 1838. However, the bill was particularly unpopular because it also compensated those who took part in the rebellions. Lord Elgin, the signatory for the bill, was due to visit Bytown, but the local residents against the bill took up arms to stop the visit. The name of the conflict originates in the use of stones, before the two opposing sides used firearms. Lord Elgin delayed his visit until 1853. | North America |
| Murray Hill Riot | Montreal's Night of Terror | 20th | 7 October 1969 | 7 October 1969 | The Murray Hill Riot, also known as Montreal’s Night of Terror, took place on the 7th of October 1969 in Montreal, Quebec. The riot was a culmination of 16 hours of rioting, looting and civil unrest during a strike by the Montreal Police force, when all 17 of Montreal’s police stations were deserted, as were fire stations. The riot resulted in the death of one police officer and the arrest of 108 people when order was restored. | North America |
| Apache-Mexico Wars | | 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th | 1600s - exact date unknown | 1915 | The Apache-Mexico Wars, also known as the Mexican Apache Wars, refer to the numerous conflicts between the Spanish (and later, Mexican) forces and the Apache peoples. These wars continued from the 1600s to 1915, and took place across north-western Mexico. The wars resulted in a Mexican victory, even though Apache tribes continued to sporadically fight the Mexican government until 1915. | North America |
| Treaty with the Delaware Nation | Treaty of Fort Pitt | 18th | 17 September 1778 | | The Treaty with the Delaware Nation, also known as the Treaty of Fort Pitt, was signed on the 17th of September 1778 by the United States of America and the Lenape Native American people, called Delawares by US settlers. The Lenape people agreed to guide the US Army across their lands to British locations, and in return the US would offer protection and trade goods. However, the United States did not fulfil their part of the treaty, and the treaty began to fail within weeks of signing. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768) | 1768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix | 18th | 5th November 1768 | 1784 | The Treaty of Fort Stanwix, also known as the 1768 Boundary Line Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the First Treaty of Fort Stanwix, was a treaty signed on the 5th of November 1768 by Great Britain and representatives of the Native American Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca peoples. The treaty established a new border line, which involved the Native American ceding land east and south of the boundary to Great Britain. This cession increased the colonial lands significantly since the Proclamation Line established in 1763. This treaty was rewritten in 1784 after the American Revolutionary War. | North America |
| Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix | Treaty with the Six Nations | 18th | 22 October 1784 | | The Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix, also known as the Treaty with the Six Nations, was signed on the 22nd of October 1784 by the United States of America and the Cayuga, Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, and Onondaga, known as the Six Nations. The treaty occurred after the American Revolutionary War and resulted in the Native American peoples ceding more territory to the US government. | North America |
| Muscogee Treaty | Treaty of New York | 18th | 7 August 1790 | | The Muscogee Treaty, also known as the Treaty of New York, was signed on the 7th of August 1790 by the United States of America and the Muscogee Native American people to establish permanent peace and friendship. However, the treaty also resulted in the Muscogee people ceding a considerable amount of land to the USA and agreeing to give fugitive American slaves to the authorities. | North America |
| Treaty of Canandaigaua | Pickering Treaty | 18th | 11 November 1790 | | The Treaty of Canandaigaua, also referred to as the Pickering Treaty and the Calico Treaty, was signed on the 11th of November 1794 by the United States of America and the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, which included Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk and Tuscarora Native American peoples. The treaty was signed by representatives from the Six Nations and Colonel Timothy Pickering, the official agent of President George Washington. The treaty further established peace between the US and the Six Nations, whilst also restoring lands to the Six Nations that were ceded in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix. This treaty is still actively recognised by all parties involved. | North America |
| Treaty of Fort Wayne | | 19th | 30 September 1809 | November 1811 (exact date unknown) | The Treaty of Fort Wayne was signed on the 30th of September 1809 by the United States of America and Native American people consisting of Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribal members. The treaty resulting in the four tribes ceding 2.5 million acres of land to the United States government. However, the signing of the treaty caused growing tensions between Native American groups and the United States government, with armed conflict beginning in November 1811 at the Battle of Tippecanoe. | North America |
| Treaty with the Potawatomi | | 19th | 5 August 1836 | | The Treaty with the Potawatomi was signed on the 5th August 1836 by the United States of America and the Potawatomi Native American people. The treaty was a repeal of the 1832 peace treaty which promised that the Potawatomi people could keep their land in northern Indiana. The United States broke the 1832 agreement and forced the Potawatomi to sell their land and travel westward. This forced removal became known at the Trail of Death. | North America |
| Horse Creek Treaty | Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 | 19th | 17 September 1851 | | The Horse Creek Treaty, also known as the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, was signed on the 17th of September 1851 by the USA and representatives of eight different Native American nations, named as the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara people. The treaty was created to ease tensions between the Native American people and the United States of America, whilst also stipulating that the Plains Native Americans would stop inter-tribal fighting. The treaty also determined that Native Americans would let white settlers travel safely through their lands. | North America |
| Treaty of Medicine Creek | | 19th | 26 December 1854 | | The Treaty of Medicine Creek was signed on the 26th of December 1854 by the United States of America and nine Native American tribes of the Nisqually, Puyallup, Steilacoom, Squawskin (Squaxin Island),S'Homamish, Stehchass, T'Peeksin, Squi-aitl, and Sa-heh-wamish people. The Native American tribes ceded 2.5 million acres to the United States of America in exchange for three reservations and $32,500 paid over 13 years. The treaty was eventually ratified in 1855. | North America |
| Little Arkansas Treaty | Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho | 19th | 14 and 18 October 1865 | 1867 (exact date unknown) | The Little Arkansas Treaty, also known as the Treaty with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, were a pair of treaties signed on the 14th and 18th October 1865 by the United States of America and the Cheyenne and Arapaho Native American tribes of the Little Arkansas River. The treaties set out to create reservations for the Native American which were never built and offered reparations for the Sand Creek Massacre. The treaty eventually failed approximately two years later and was replaced by the Medicine Lodge Treaty. | North America |
| Johnson County War | Wyoming Range War | 19th | April 1892 | May 1892 | The Johnson County War, also known as the Wyoming Range War and the War on Powder River, was an armed conflict which took place in April and May 1892 between the Wyoming Stock Growers Association (WGSA) and local homesteaders. Cattle companies, supported by WGSA, began accusing homesteaders and ranchers of cattle rustling. The conflict erupted as a result of a number of ranchers being lynched and killed for their supposed crimes, many of which had not been fully investigated. The war was brought to an end when the United States Army were deployed to the region. | North America |
| Río Blanco Uprising | Río Blanco Labour Dispute | 20th | 7 January 1907 | 7 January 1907 | The Río Blanco Uprising, also known as the Río Blanco Labour Dispute, took place in Río Blanco, in the south-eastern Mexican state of Veracruz. Tensions had been building between workers and foreign-owned textile companies since 1906 due to poor working conditions. Violence broke out on the 7th January 1907 after several riots and resulted in a massacre, which became one of the key uprisings that led to the Mexican Revolution. | North America |
| Sagebrush War | Boundary War | 19th | 15 February 1863 | 15 February 1863 | The Sagebrush War, also known as the Boundary War, was an armed conflict between the California county of Plumas and the Nevada county of Roop, a county that no longer exists. The conflict began as a result of no one knowing the placement of the 120th Meridian line, which was designated as the eastern boundary of California in 1850 by John C. Fremont. The battle took place on the 15th of February 1863, ending with a truce which resulted in the formation of Lassen County, California in 1864. Only two people were injured in this short conflict. | North America |
| Battle of Cut Knife | | 19th | 2 May 1885 | 2 May 1885 | The Battle of Cut Knife took place on the 2nd of May 1885 near Battleford, Saskatchewan in Canada. The conflict was a result of armed Canadian law enforcement and Canadian Army attacking Cree and Assiniboine Native American tribes. The battle ended in a stalemate but contributed to the escalation of violence in the North-West Rebellion. | North America |
| Ten Years' War | War of ’68 | 19th | 10 October 1868 | 10 February 1878 | Ten Years’ War, also known as the War of ’68, was an armed conflict which took place in Cuba between 1868 and 1878. Rising tensions between the Cuban people and the Spanish government resulted in a revolution led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. On 10 October 1868, Cuban independence was proclaimed, thus forming the Republic of Cuba. While the conflict was key in the Cuban fight for independence, it ended in defeat for the Cuban revolutionaries. The independence movement weakened in 1877, and in 1878 the Pact of Zanjón was signed, ending the war. | North America |
| Pact of Zanjón | Treaty of Zanjón | 19th | 10 Feburary 1878 | August 1879 | The Pact of Zanjón, also known as the Treaty of Zanjón, was a peace treaty signed on 10 February 1878 by Cuban revolutionaries and representatives of the Spanish government in the Cuban village of Zanjón. The treaty brought an end to the Ten Years’ War fought in Cuba as part of the independence movement. However, peace was short-lived as the nationalist leader Antonio Maceo and several others refused to accept the Spanish conditions of the agreement. Consequently, a second uprising known as the Little War started in August 1879. | North America |
| Little War | | | 26 August 1879 | 3 December 1880 | The Little War, known in Spanish as La Guerra Chiquita, was a war of independence fought by Cuban revolutionaries led by Calixto Garcia against Spanish colonial forces between 26 August 1879 and 3 December 1880. While the revolutionaries had several successes, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed, and Cuba did not win its independence until 1898. | North America |
| Cuban War of Independence | Necessary War | 19th | 24 February 1895 | 10 December 1898 | The Cuban War of Independence, also known in Cuba as the Necessary War, took place between 24 February 1895 and 10 December 1898. At the beginning of the conflict, Spain sent approximately 100,000 soldiers to terminate the uprising. The conflict was the last of three in the Cuban Independence Movement and resulted in Cuban independence being formally granted in 1902, with the intervention of the United States of America towards the end of the war. The end of both the Cuban War of Independence and the Spanish-American War was reflected in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. | North America |
| Escambray Rebellion | | 20th | 1959 | 1965 | The Escambray Rebellion was an armed conflict which took place in the Escambray Mountains in Cuba between 1959 and 1965. The conflict was between Cuban insurgent groups, who fought alongside Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution, and the Cuban government. The insurgents were a considerably smaller force than the government, resulting in a victory for the government. | North America |
| Cuban Missile Crisis | October Crisis of 1962 | 20th | 16 October 1962 | 29 October 1962 | The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis of 1962, was an armed confrontation between the United States of America and the Soviet Union that took place between 16 to 29 October. The conflict followed the discovery that nuclear missile sites were being built by the Soviet Union in Cuba. The United States enforced naval blockades to prevent further military supplies from being imported to Cuba. Eventually, it was agreed by the leaders of the two countries, John F. Kennedy and Nikita Krushchev, that nuclear warfare would have devastating consequences on a global scale, and the missile sites were dismantled. | North America |
| Operation Mongoose | | 20th | 30 November 1961 | 1962 | Operation Mongoose was a series of covert operatives carried out by United States CIA operatives in Cuba throughout the year 1961. The objective of Operation Mongoose was to destabilise and remove the Communist Castro government. Components of the operation included the publication of Anti-Castro propaganda, the provision of armaments for militant opposition groups, and the establishment of guerrilla bases throughout Cuba. Operation Mongoose failed to achieve its primary goal, and support from the Soviet Union continued in Cuba until the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. | North America |
| Cuban Revolution | | 20th | 26 July 1953 | 1 January 1959 | The Cuban Revolution was an armed effort to overthrow the government of Fulgencio Batista, which started on 26 July 1953. Guerrilla forces opposing Batista’s government were led by Fidel Castro, and on 1 January 1959 Castro’s M-26-7 rebel army successfully overthrew the government. Fidel Castro subsequently ruled Cuba from 1959 to 2008. | North America |
| Tacky’s War | Tacky’s Revolt | 18th | 7 April 1760 | October 1761 | Tacky’s War, also known as Tacky’s Revolt, was a fight for freedom by enslaved people in the British Colony of Jamaica against British colonial forces. The rebellion took place from 7 April 1760 to October 1761 and was led by Akan people which included the tribes of Ashanti, Fanti, Nzema, and Akyem. The uprising was led by a Fanti royal and warlord named Tacky (Takyi) in eastern Jamaica, and by Dahomean war chief Apongo in the western part of the island. Facing an overwhelming number of British forces, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed. | North America |
| First Maroon War | | 18th | 1728 | 1739 | The First Maroon War was an armed conflict between Jamaican Maroons and colonial British forces and took place between 1728 and 1739. The Maroon communities were comprised of enslaved people who ran away to the mountains from Spanish-owned plantations when the British took control of Jamaica. The Maroons, alongside other fugitives, fought against the British after colonial forces tried to quell the increasing Maroon numbers. Ending in 1739, the war resulted in a Maroon victory with the British drafting peace treaties. | North America |
| Second Maroon War | | 18th | 1795 | 1 January 1796 | The Second Maroon War was an armed conflict between Jamaican Maroon people and British colonial forces that took place in 1795 and ended on 1 January 1796. Following rising tensions between the two factions, the war was sparked when two Maroon people were flogged publicly for allegedly having stolen pigs from white plantation owners. Due to the overwhelming number of British forces, the Maroon people eventually surrendered, More than 500 Maroons were subsequently sent to Sierra Leone, a newly established African colony. | North America |
| Morant Bay Rebellion | | 19th | 11 October 1865 | 11 October 1865 | The Morant Bay Rebellion took place on 11 October 1865 in Morant Bay, Jamaica. Slavery was abolished in Jamaica on 1 August 1834, yet injustice and widespread poverty continued to be pervasive throughout Jamaica in the late-1800s. When Black Jamaicans marched, led by Paul Bogle, on the courthouse in early October over land inequality, it fuelled the Morant Bay Rebellion. The rebels were met by local officials and a small militia, resulting in the death of approximately 25 people on both sides. Many of the Jamaican people received severe punishments for the rebellion. | North America |
| Zong Massacre | | 18th | November 1781 | November 1781 | The Zong Massacre was a mass killing of approximately 142 enslaved Africans, which took place in November 1781. The Zong was a British slave ship, which left Ghana with just over 400 enslaved people aboard, almost double what the ship was designed to carry. As the ship came into port in Jamaica, many of the African people were thrown overboard whilst still alive, and they subsequently drowned. The ship owners made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves. When the insurers refused to pay, the resulting court cases found that in some circumstances, the deliberate killing of enslaved people was legal. | North America |
| Baptist War | Christmas Rebellion | 19th | 25 December 1831 | 4 January 1832 | The Baptist War, also known as the Christmas Rebellion, was a rebellion that took place from 25 December 1831 to 4 January 1832. The 11-day rebellion mobilised an estimated 60,000 enslaved people in Jamaica, led by Jamaican Baptist preacher Samuel Sharpe, to confront the colonial forces. The rebellion was quickly extinguished by British colonial forces, but skirmishes continued for another two months. By the end of the fighting, over 200 rebels had been killed, and a further 300 enslaved people, including Samuel Sharpe, were executed. | North America |
| Haitian Revolution | | 18th, 19th | 21 August 1791 | 1 January 1804 | The Haitian Revolution was an armed conflict between enslaved Haitian people and both French and British colonial forces which took place from 21 August 1791 to 1 January 1804. The revolution was an armed struggle to overthrow French colonial rule and establish an independent nation. After 12 years of conflict, the Haitian people and their supporters defeated the colonial forces, gaining independence from France. | North America |
| Caco Revolt | Caco Uprising | 20th | 1918 | 1920 | The Caco Revolt, also known as the Caco Uprising, was a series of conflicts between Haitian armed men known as Cacos and United States forces which took place between 1918 and 1920. From 1915 to 1934, American forces occupied Haiti, and the Caco forces resisted forced labour and expropriation of their land. The Caco forces were eventually defeated in 1920, and the end of hostilities was marked by the death of the Caco leader, Benoît Batraville. | North America |
| Dominican War of Independence | | 19th | 27 February 1844 | January 1856 | The Dominican War of Independence was an armed conflict that took place between 27 February 1844 and January 1856 which resulted in Dominican independence. Since 1822, the Caribbean island of Hispaniola had unified the newly independent nation, previously known as the Captaincy General of Santo Domingo, in the Republic of Haiti. On 27 February 1844, an armed revolutionary struggle broke out on the eastern side of the island, with the Dominicans defeating Haitian forces. The conflict continued until January 1856, eventually resulting in the Haitian forces retreating and the Dominican Republic gaining its independence. | North America |
| Dominican Civil War | April Revolution | 20th | 24 April 1965 | 3 September 1965 | The Dominican Civil War, also known as the April Revolution, was a conflict between several military factions that began on 24 April 1965 when supporters of the overthrown democratically elected president Juan Bosch ousted the militarily-installed president, Donald Reid Cabral, from office. Fears of communist rebels led to American intervention in late April 1965. Eventually, a ceasefire was declared and the loyalist faction of the Dominican Republic, supported by the United States, was victorious. Elections were held on 1 July 1966 where the conservative Reformist Party candidate, Joaquín Balaguer, became president. | North America |
| La Scierie Massacre | | 21st | 11 February 2004 | 11 February 2004 | The La Scierie Massacre took place on 11 February 2004 in the town of Saint-Marc, Haiti. Whilst protesting against Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Haiti’s first democratically elected president, 27 members of an anti-Aristide organisation were killed, with the illegally armed pro-Aristide organization Balé Wouzé taking action against the anti-Aristide group known as RAMISCOM. Contentions pertain between the two sides as to the number of dead, who instigated the fighting, and the extent and nature of the government’s involvement. | North America |
| Rio Pedras Massacre | | 20th | 24 October 1935 | 24 October 1935 | The Rio Piedras Massacre took place on 24 October 1935 at the University of Puerto Rico. The massacre happened as a result of a confrontation between members of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and the police force in Rio Piedras. As a result of the conflict, four Nationalist party members were killed, and one police officer was injured. | North America |
| Jayuya Uprising | Jayuya Revolt | 20th | 30 October 1950 | | The Jayuya Uprising, also known as the Jayuya Revolt, took place on 30 October 1950 in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The conflict was a Nationalist uprising against the Puerto Rican government, which was supported by the United States of America. The insurrectionists, who opposed US sovereignty over Puerto Rico, were led by Blanca Canales. Armed, they marched into Jayuya where they subsequently took control of the police station. Martial law was declared by the governor of Jayuya, Luis Muñoz Marin. Several military attacks forced the Nationalists to surrender, defeating the uprising. | North America |
| Cerro Maravilla Murders | Cerro Maravilla Massacre | 20th | 25 July 1978 | 25 July 1978 | The Cerro Maravilla Murders, also known as the Cerro Maravilla Massacre, took place on 25 July 1978 on the mountain of Cerro Maravilla in Ponce, Puerto Rico. In an ambush by Puerto Rican police, two pro-independence activists were killed. The incident was initially declared to be an act against terrorism, but the police officers were later found guilty of murder. The victims were Carlos Enrique Soto-Arriví and Arnaldo Darío Rosado-Torres. | North America |
| Treaty Between the British and the Maroons | | 18th | 1739 | 1795 | The Treaty Between the British and the Maroons was signed in 1739 by British governor Edward Trelawny and Captain Cudjoe, the representatives of Great Britain and Jamaican Maroons, respectively. The treaty signalled the end of the First Maroon War, which had resulted in victory for the Maroons. With the treaty, the Maroons gained sovereignty over 1500 acres of land and some degree of political and economic autonomy, in return for providing military support to the British colonies. The treaty was broken in 1795, which resulted in the exiling of the Maroon offenders to Nova Scotia, Canada. | North America |
| War of 1863 | | 19th | 13 February 1863 | 26 October 1863 | The War of 1863 was an armed conflict between Guatemala and El Salvador which took place from 13 February to 26 October 1863. The conflict was due to the growing opposition between Guatemalan President Rafael Carrera and the president of El Salvador, Gerardo Barrios. The war ended with the siege of San Salvador, the capital city of El Salvador, with Barrios fleeing the city. Barrios was overthrown and replaced by Francisco Dueñas, thus ending the war. | North America |
| Guatemalan Civil War | | 20th | 13 November 1960 | 29 December 1996 | The Guatemalan Civil War took place from 13 November 1960 to 29 December 1996 between the Guatemalan government and revolution movement groups under various names throughout the 36 years of conflict. The war began as a revolt against the government and escalated into warfare. It is estimated that up to 200,00 people died in the civil war, and the conflict is infamous for the use of violence and military tactics that violated human rights. Throughout the conflict a number of social reforms were put into place, and the war eventually ended when a peace accord was signed in 1996. | North America |
| Caste War of Yucatán | | 19th | 1847 | 1915 | The Caste War of Yucatán was an armed conflict that took place from 1847 to 1915 in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and British Honduras with Mexico, Yucatan, Guatemala, and British Honduras fighting against the Maya peoples of Yucatán. The Maya rebelled against further migration of Hispanic and white populations to indigenous rural towns. With the aid of the British, after realising the trading potential of the Maya peoples, a Mayan victory was secured in 1883. However, the conflict reignited and in 1915, the Maya peoples were defeated, although skirmishes continued until 1933. | North America |
| Filibuster War | Walker Affair | 19th | 16 June 1855 | 1 May 1857 | The Filibuster War, also known as the Walker Affair, took place between 16 June 1855 and 1 May 1857. It was a conflict between an American mercenary army led by William Walker and a number of Central American armies. William Walker and his army filibustered into Nicaragua, meaning that he led military personnel to invade a foreign territory without authorisation. Intent on defending Central America from Walker and other filibusters, Central American countries formed a coalition which defeated Walker’s army. Walker subsequently surrendered to the US Navy. | North America |
| First Totoposte War | | 19th | 27 June 1890 | 21 August 1890 | The First Totoposte War was the first of three conflicts of the same name. This war took place from 27 June 1890 to 21 August 1890 between Guatemala and El Salvador and began as a result of the President of El Salvador, Francisco Menéndez, being overthrown by Carlos Ezeta. Officials from Menéndez’s government fled to Guatemala where they persuaded Guatemalan President Manuel Barillas to invade El Salvador. The war became a stalemate within weeks and a peace treaty was signed on 21 August 1890. | North America |
| Treaty of Amapala | | 19th | 20 June 1895 | 29 November 1898 | The Treaty of Amapala was signed on 20 June 1895 by representatives from El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The signing of the treaty formed the Greater Republic of Central America, which collectively held diplomatic relations with the United States of America. However, on 29 November 1898, the Greater Republic of Central America was dissolved along with the Treaty of Amapala. | North America |
| Second Totoposte War | | 20th | 1903 | | The Second Totoposte War took place in 1903 when the Greater Republic of Central America was to be reformed. However, the President of Guatemala, Manuel Estrada Cabrera, refused to re-join the Greater Republic. Insistent on reforming the nation, the President of El Salvador, Tomás Regalado, declared war on Guatemala. After a few months of no armed conflict taking place, the war ended after 84 days. | North America |
| Third Totoposte War | | 20th | 1906 | 28 July 1906 | The Third Totoposte War was an armed conflict that took place in 1906 between El Salvador and Guatemala. With the support of Mexico, the President of El Salvador, Tomás Regalado, declared war on Guatemala. It did not take long for the Mexican and El Salvadoran armies to retreat, resulting in the end of the war in July 1906. The Treaty of Marblehead was signed on 20 July 1906, marking the official end of all three Totoposte Wars. | North America |
| Treaty of Marblehead | | 20th | 20 July 1906 | | The Treaty of Marblehead was signed on 20 July 1906 by representatives from Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Organised by United States and Mexican ministers, the peace treaty signalled the official end to the third and final Totoposte War. Among other articles, the treaty agreed to the removal of military forces and the exchange of prisoners. | North America |
| Barrios’ War of Reunification | | 19th | 28 February 1885 | 14 April 1885 | Barrios’ War of Reunification, known in Spanish as Intentona de Barrios, was a war instigated by Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios. The conflict lasted for approximately six weeks, beginning on 28 February 1885 and ending on 14 April 1885. Barrios intended to reunify the Federation of Central America by force, following its collapse in 1838. Although peace was agreed upon on 14 April, Barrios died in combat on 2 April during the invasion of El Salvador, resulting in Guatemalan defeat. | North America |
| Mexico-Guatemala Conflict | Mexican-Guatemalan Imbroglio | 20th | 30 December 1958 | 15 September 1959 | The Mexico-Guatemala Conflict, also referred to as the Mexican-Guatemalan Imbroglio, was an armed conflict that took place in waters just off of the Pacific coast of Mexico, from 30 December 1958 to 15 September 1959. The conflict began when the Guatemalan Air Force open fired on a number of Mexican fishing boats located in Guatemalan territory. The incident resulted in the death of three fishermen and 14 others were wounded. A ceasefire ended the conflict, but tensions between Mexico and Guatemala remained high. | North America |
| Malespín’s War | | 19th | 25 October 1844 | 13 February 1845 | Malespín’s War, known in Spanish as Guerra de Malespín, was an armed conflict resulting from the El Salvadoran and Honduran invasion of Nicaragua. The conflict began on 25 October 1844 and lasted until 13 February 1845. The invasion of Nicaragua had taken place due to the changing political landscape in Central America. Civil unrest ensued after failed elections, for which Nicaraguan liberals were blamed by the El Salvadoran and Honduran governments. The war ended in victory for Nicaragua, and a peace treaty was subsequently signed. | North America |
| Granada-Leon War | Granada-Leon Civil War | 19th | 1854 | 1855 | The Granada-Leon War, also known as the Granada-Leon Civil War, was a conflict that took place between 1854 and 1855 in Nicaragua. The war began when Fruto Chamorro, leader of the Conservative Party of Nicaragua, after being elected through a fraudulent election, moved the capital to Granada, forming a new constitution without the approval of the government. On behalf of liberals based in Leon, Francisco Castellón Sanabria asked William Walker, a US filibuster, to help them retake control. | North America |
| Banana Wars | | 19th, 20th | 21 April 1898 | 1934 | The Banana Wars were a series of conflicts enacted by the United States of America in Central America and the Caribbean. Beginning on 21 April 1898, the US took military occupation of several Central American and Caribbean countries. The conflict occurred due to the economic and militaristic opportunities available to the US, which included securing the Panama Canal. The conflicts ended in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were named the Banana Wars much later, after the tropical produce exported from Central America and the Caribbean. | North America |
| Esquipulas Nicaraguan Peace Agreement | Central American Peace Accords | 20th | 7 August 1987 | | The Esquipulas Nicaraguan Peace Agreement, also known as the Central American Peace Accords, was a peace treaty signed on 7 August 1987 by the presidents of a number of Central American countries including Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica. The peace agreement set out to settle the many military conflicts that Central American countries had experienced over a long period of time. The treaty defined a host of measures to promote national reconciliation and democratisation, including free elections and assistance to refugees. It also laid the foundation for international verification procedures and established a timetable for implementation. | North America |
| 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity | General Treaty of Peace and Amity, 1923 | 20th | 7 February 1923 | 1934 | The 1923 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity, also known as the General Treaty of Peace and Amity, 1923, was a peace treaty signed by representatives of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica, on 7 February 1923. The treaty established that these five nations would not recognize a government brought to power through illegal means such as a revolution or military coup. In 1934, the treaty was denounced by the Central American Court of Justice. | North America |
| War of 1907 | | 20th | 11 June 1907 | 20 December 1907 | The War of 1907, known in Spanish as Guerra de 1907, was an armed conflict between El Salvador and a coalition that included Nicaragua, Honduras, American filibusters, and El Salvadoran exiles. The conflict took place over the course of one day, but the war formally occurred between 11 June and 20 December 1907. The one day of active conflict resulted in victory for El Salvador, after which other conflicts broke out between Honduras and Nicaragua. The war officially ended when the nations signed a treaty establishing the Central American Court of Justice. | North America |
| 1907 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity | Central American Peace Conference of 1907 | 20th | 17 September 1907 | 1923 | The 1907 Central American Treaty of Peace and Amity, also known as the Central American Peace Conference of 1907, was signed in Washington D.C. on 17 September 1907. The peace treaty was organized by the United States of America and Mexico in order to help the Central American nations resolve their conflicts. After the peace treaty was signed in September, the conference was held in Washington D.C. from 14 November to 20 December to continue the peace talks. Conflicts continued between Central American nations, and the treaty was redeveloped in 1923. | North America |
| Panama War of Independence | Panama Revolution | 19th | 10 November 1821 | 28 November 1821 | The Panama War of Independence, also known as the Panama Revolution, was a bloodless conflict which led to Panama becoming independent from Spain and forming the Republic of Panama. The First Cry of Independence was first called on 10 November 1821 in La Villa de Los Santos. The independence revolt was led by José de Fábrega once the Spanish governor left Panama. After gaining a foothold in Panama City without bloodshed, independence was declared, with the official date of Panama’s independence from Spain being 28 November 1821. | North America |
| Independence of Panama from Colombia | | 20th | 3 November 1903 | 3 November 1903 | The Independence of Panama from Colombia formally took place on 3 November 1903. The Republic of Panama had been formed in 1821 when Panama became independent from Spain. In doing so, Panama joined the confederation of Gran Colombia, a state which encompassed much of Central America and the northern nations of South America. Panamanians revolted against the Colombian government and formed a government junta, and consequently became the independent Republic of Panama | North America |
| Ochomogo War | Battle of Ochomogo | 19th | 5 April 1823 | 5 April 1823 | The Ochomogo War, also known as the Battle of Ochomogo, was a civil conflict that took place on 5 April 1823 in Costa Rica. The battle was fought by Republicans of the First Costa Rican Republic and Costa Rican Imperialists loyal to the First Mexican Empire. Only a few weeks after the Republicans won the Battle of Ochomogo did the First Mexican Empire cease to exist. Gregorio José Ramírez led the Republicans and assumed dictatorship of the country after the battle. He did so for ten days to restore public order and subsequently organised the new government. | North America |
| League War | | 19th | September 1835 | October 1835 | The League War was the second civil war of Costa Rica, which took place from September 1835 to October 1835. The conflict was fought by the city of San José (the capital as of 1823),against the cities of Alajuela, Cartago, and Heredia (known as the League of Three Cities). The war was initiated by the repeal of the Ambulance Law, which oversaw the rotation of money among the four cities. The soldiers of San José defeated the militia from the other cities, resulting in the consolidation of San José as the capital city of Costa Rica. | North America |
| Porras-Anderson Treaty | Porras-Anderson Convention | 20th | 17 March 1910 | 21 February 1921 | The Porras-Anderson Treaty, also known as the Porras-Anderson Convention, was a peace treaty confirming a previous agreement that had awarded Costa Rica some territory of the Atlantic side of the Coto region. The award had been given by United States Chief Justice Edward Douglass White in 1914, but it was frequently disputed by Panamanians. The Porras-Anderson Treaty was signed on 17 March 1910 to assert that both Panama and Costa Rica would abide by the award. The territory was later fought over during the Coto War of 1921. | North America |
| Arias-Caulderon Treaty | | 20th | 1941 | | The Arias-Caulderon Treaty was a peace treaty between Panama and Costa Rica signed in 1941. After decades of disputes over the Panama-Costa Rican border, particularly in the Coto region, the treaty signalled the end of the conflict by establishing the border. | North America |
| Calderonista Invasion of Costa Rica | | 20th | January 1955 | January 1955 | The Calderonista Invasion of Costa Rica was an armed rebellion that took place in Costa Rica in January 1955. Forces loyal to former president Rafael Calderón started the rebellion against the Costa Rican government, led by the president at the time of the rebellion, José Figueres Ferrer. The Calderón loyalists were also supported by the government of Nicaragua. The invasion resulted in victory for Ferrer’s Costa Rican government. | North America |
| Esguerra-Bárcenas Treaty | | 20th, 21st | 24 March 1928 | 2001 | The Esguerra-Bárcenas Treaty was signed on 24 March 1928 by representatives from Colombia and Nicaragua. The treaty was drafted to end the territorial dispute between the two nations, with Nicaragua agreeing to recognize Colombia’s sovereignty over the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. Similarly, Colombia agreed to recognise Nicaraguan treaties. Nicaragua disputed the treaty in 2001, setting out changes to the territories of each nation as the dispute went to the International Court of Justice. | North America |
| Wyke-Aycinena Treaty | Boundary of British Honduras Treaty | 19th | 30 April 1859 | | The Wyke-Aycinena Treaty, also known as the Boundary of British Honduras Treaty, was concluded and signed on 30 April 1859 by representatives from Great Britain and Guatemala. The treaty established the territorial borders for British Honduras, now known as the country of Belize. As well as establishing the border, the treaty gave access to nearby waterways for both Great Britain and Guatemala. | North America |
| Liévano-Brutus Treaty | | 20th | 17 February 1978 | | The Liévano-Brutus Treaty, also known as the Agreement on Delimitation of the Maritime Boundaries Between the Republic of Colombia and the Republic of Haiti, was signed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti on 17 February 1978. The treaty defined a maritime boundary between Haiti and Colombia. It was ratified in 1979, and as of 2023, the treaty is still active. | North America |
| Cañas-Jerez Treaty | Treaty of Limits between Costa Rica and Nicaragua | 19th | 15 April 1858 | | The Cañas-Jerez Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Limits between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, was concluded and signed on 15 April 1858 in the city of San José, Costa Rica. Negotiated by Maximo Jerez, representative for Nicaragua, and José María Cañas, representative for Costa Rica, the peace treaty was drafted with the aim of reducing the growing border tensions. The treaty remains active today. | North America |
| Bryan-Chamorro Treaty | | 20th | 5 August 1914 | 1970 | The Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed on 5 August 1914 by representatives from Nicaragua and the United States of America. The treaty allowed the United States to construct a canal across Nicaragua, build a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca, and lease the Corn Islands in the Caribbean. Despite protests by Nicaragua’s neighbouring countries, the treaty was signed, though eventually abolished in 1970. | North America |
| Extradition Treaty with the Dominican Republic | | 21st | 12 January 2015 | | The Extradition Treaty with the Dominican Republic, formally known as the Extradition Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Dominican Republic, was signed in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic on 12 January 2015. The treaty replaced the Extradition Treaty of 1909 with the intention of updating and modernising the methods available for the extradition of serious criminal offenders. | North America |
| Treaty of Friendship and Alliance | | 19th | 4 April 1845 | | The Treaty of Friendship and Alliance between El Salvador and Guatemala was signed on 4 April 1845. Delegates from each country met in Sonsonate, Honduras to agree upon the formation of a national Central American authority. The delegates were to ensure internal peace and were instructed to invite representatives from Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. | North America |
| 1902 Treaty of Peace and Compulsory Arbitration | | 20th | 20 January 1902 | 1906 | The 1902 Treaty of Peace and Compulsory Arbitration was signed on 20 January 1902 by representatives from Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. The treaty was signed in Corinto, Nicaragua, forming an arbitration court. A number of smaller peace and compulsory arbitration treaties were signed in subsequent years between various Central American countries. Despite this, war broke out in 1906, rendering the treaty ineffectual. | North America |
| Treaty of San José | | 20th | 25 September 1906 | | The Treaty of San José was signed on 25 September 1906 by representatives from Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador during the San José Convention of 1906. The treaty stipulated that when settling difficulties among the signatory nations, the United States of America and Mexico would act as arbitrators for any conflicts. Articles of the treaty also called into question the potential for the re-establishment of the Central American Union. | North America |
| Robinson-Superior Treaty | | 19th | 7 September 1850 | 1875 | The Robinson-Superior Treaty was signed on 7 September 1850 by representatives from Great Britain and the Ojibwa native people of Canada. The treaty applied to the Ojibwa people living along the north shore of Lake Superior in Canada and was negotiated by William Benjamin Robinson. Robinson was given a budget of £7,500 (at the time) to purchase as much land as possible. This forced the Ojibwa people out of the region and into reservations. The treaty became untenable by 1875 when the British stopped the annuity payments to the native people. | North America |
| Robinson-Huron Treaty | | 19th | 9 September 1850 | 1875 | The Robinson-Huron Treaty was signed on 9 September 1850 by representatives from Great Britain and the Ojibwa native people of Canada, just two days after the signing of the Robinson-Superior Treaty. The treaty applied to the Ojibwa people living on the shores of Lake Huron and was negotiated by William Benjamin Robinson. Robinson purchased large tracts of land on behalf of Great Britain, with the Ojibwa people being forced from their land into reservations. By 1875, the British government stopped upholding the treaty commitments. | North America |
| Douglas Treaties | Vancouver Island Treaties | 19th | 1850-1854 | | The Douglas Treaties, also known as the Vancouver Island Treaties, were 14 treaties signed between 1850 and 1854. The treaties were signed by Sir James Douglas and a number of native peoples living across approximately 927 square kilometres of land. James Douglas was a key figure in the Hudson Bay Company and was governor of the colony of Vancouver Island. Native peoples retained the right to fish and hunt on the surrendered lands and could retain existing village lands. The treaties have been disputed many times. | North America |
| Great Treaty of 1722 | Treaty of Albany | 18th | 1722 | | The Great Treaty of 1722, also known as the Treaty of Albany, was signed in 1722 by five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy and the English colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The treaty established a territorial boundary between the English settlers and the Iroquois nations. The Governor of Virginia, Alexander Spotswood, used the treaty as an opportunity to expand the colony, and by extension, the British Empire. This is the oldest treaty still recognised in the United States. | North America |
| Nanfan Treaty | | 18th | 19 July 1701 | 1726 | The Nanfan Treaty, also known as the Deed from the Five Nations to the King, of their Beaver Hunting Ground was a treaty signed on 19 July 1701 by representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy and Great Britain. The treaty was signed on behalf of Great Britain by John Nanfan, the acting colonial governor of New York at the time. The Iroquois nations granted a vast tract of land covering a large portion of the American Midwest and southern Ontario. The treaty was later amended in 1726 to allow the Iroquois nations to occupy land. | North America |
| Costa Rican Civil War | Revolution of 1948 | 20th | 12 March 1948 | 24 April 1948 | The Costa Rican Civil War, also known as the Revolution of 1948, took place from 12 March 1948 to 24 April 1948. The 44-day conflict began as a result of suspected election fraud that was believed to have taken place in February 1948. This led to an uprising against the government of Teodoro Picado Michalski. Led by José Figueres Ferrer, the rebels won the civil war, and Picado’s government was dismantled. Ferrer organised a provisional government and demilitarised Costa Rica. The government was subsequently handed over to Otilio Ulate Blanco, who served as President of Costa Rica from 1949 to 1953. | North America |
| Coto War | | 20th | 20 February 1921 | 5 March 1921 | The Coto War, known in Spanish as Guerra de Coto, was an armed conflict between Costa Rica and Panama that took place from 21 February 1921 to 5 March 1921. The Coto district was disputed throughout the 20th century, with it being designated as Costa Rican land in 1900 but remaining occupied by Panamanians. On 21 February 1921, Costa Rican troops advanced on Coto to capture the territory through military efforts. The US intervened and demanded both sides cease hostilities. The war resulted in Nuevo Pueblo de Coto being annexed to Costa Rica. | North America |